Heart and blood vessels

Shown to improve endurance time-trial power by about 3% and completion time by about 2% in mostly young, trained men. Responses varied.

Linked to about 15% lower cardiovascular disease at 3 to 5 cups a day than no coffee, in pooled cohorts. Heavy drinking was not linked to higher risk.

Compared with people drinking no coffee [2]; the lowest intake group, median 0 cups a day [6]

Linked to less cardiovascular disease with more daily steps in pooled cohorts, a clear pattern in adults 60 and older and no clear pattern in younger adults.

Compared with people in the lowest quarter of steps [6]; 2,000 steps a day [3][4]; people in the lowest quarter, a median of 2,337 steps a day [2]

Shown to add about 1,800 to 2,500 steps a day in trials of pedometers and activity trackers, with a small gain in fitness.

Compared with control participants [8]; control groups the source does not describe [9]; control groups in randomized trials [10]

Shown to lower blood pressure by about 1.8 mmHg with flavanol-rich cocoa products in short trials, by about 4 mmHg systolic in people with hypertension.

Compared with flavanol-free products or low-flavanol cocoa powder [2]; control conditions the abstract does not describe [3]

Shown to lower systolic blood pressure about 3 to 7 mmHg against control diets in adults, about 11 mmHg in people with hypertension in the original feeding trial.

Compared with control diets that were not DASH-like, otherwise not described [1]; control diets the source does not describe [2], [3]; a control diet low in fruits, vegetables and dairy, with fat typical of the US diet [4]; a control diet typical of US intake, eaten at high sodium [5]

Shown to lower systolic blood pressure by about 4.4 mmHg in mostly healthy adults over short trials. Diastolic pressure did not change significantly.

Shown to cut stroke or systemic embolism by about 19% and death by about 10% against warfarin in adults with atrial fibrillation.

Shown to prevent repeat clots about as well as warfarin-based treatment in adults with acute venous clots, with about 40% less major bleeding.

Linked to 9% lower coronary heart disease and 15% lower coronary death at the highest fish intake than the lowest, in pooled cohorts, with lean fish showing no link.

Compared with the lowest fish intake category [7][6]; 20 g a day less fish, in a dose-response model [7][5]

Linked to 10% lower stroke at the highest fish intake than the lowest, and 6% lower for each 3 extra servings a week, in pooled cohorts.

Compared with the lowest fish intake category [8]; 3 fewer servings a week, in a dose-response model [9]

Shown to lower stroke about 10% in adults, with no change in coronary heart disease. Effects were larger in people with low blood folate.

Shown to lower blood pressure about 7 to 8 mmHg systolic and 5 mmHg diastolic in adults with hypertension.

Linked to 19% lower heart attack and 36% lower stroke at 1 to 3 cups a day than under 1 cup, in pooled studies, mostly from Asia.

Compared with people drinking under 1 cup a day [3][2]

Shown to lower diastolic blood pressure about 1.4 mmHg more than comparison diets in adults.

Compared with diets that did not restrict carbohydrates to the level of ketosis

Shown to lower blood pressure about 5 to 6 mmHg systolic and 2.6 mmHg diastolic in adults. Doses above 9 g a day and obese participants showed no change.

Shown to lower blood pressure about 2 mmHg systolic and 2 mmHg diastolic, with larger drops of about 4 mmHg in people with insulin resistance or chronic disease.

Linked to 16% less cardiovascular disease per extra 25 g a day in cohorts, mostly through less stroke. Coronary heart disease alone showed no clear link.

Compared with 25 g a day less, in a dose-response model [3][6]; the bottom third of intake [4]

Shown to lower blood pressure more than comparison diets in adults, by about 3 to 4 mmHg diastolic and 4 to 6 mmHg systolic.

Compared with control diets the source does not describe [1], [3]; a control group the source does not describe [5]

Linked to about 17% less cardiovascular disease and 23% to 29% fewer cardiovascular deaths at the guideline amount in pooled cohorts, with the largest gains moving from none to some.

Compared with people doing no non-occupational activity [2]; inactive people [3]; insufficiently active people, under 600 MET-minutes a week [4]

Shown to lower resting blood pressure by about 3.5 to 4.5 mmHg systolic with aerobic training in pooled trials, and by about 8 mmHg in people with hypertension.

Compared with non-exercising control groups [11][12]

Shown to lower blood pressure about 3.5 mmHg systolic and 2 mmHg diastolic in people with hypertension, with little effect in people without it.

Shown to lower blood pressure, by about 4 mmHg systolic for a 130 mmol daily sodium cut, more in people with hypertension and in older adults.

Compared with usual sodium intake [3]; usual salt intake [4]; a high-sodium diet [5]; higher sodium intakes in the same trials [6]

Shown to lower systolic blood pressure by about 4.4 to 4.8 mmHg with potassium-enriched salt substitutes in place of regular salt, in two meta-analyses.

Compared with regular salt [7][8]; usual salt [9]

Shown to cut cardiovascular death or heart failure hospitalization by about 23% in adults with heart failure, with or without diabetes.

Shown to cut major cardiovascular events by about 10% in adults with type 2 diabetes, with the benefit clearest in people with established cardiovascular disease.

Shown to lower systolic blood pressure by about 2.5 mm Hg and diastolic by about 1.5 mm Hg in adults with type 2 diabetes.

Linked to more cardiovascular disease and deaths from it with more sitting or TV time in pooled cohorts, with risk rising above about 6 hours of sitting a day.

Compared with people with less sedentary time, with physical activity held equal [1]; each hour less of sitting or TV a day [3]; each 2 hours less of TV a day [6]

Linked to more heart disease and stroke at both short and long sleep in pooled cohorts, with the lowest risk near 7 hours a night.

Compared with people sleeping 7 to 8 hours a night, the reference in most studies [1]; normal sleepers [3]; people with normal sleep duration [4]

Linked to lower heart disease and stroke risk within 5 years of quitting, with the excess falling steadily with time but staying above never smokers for 10 to 15 years.

Compared with never smokers, with former and current smokers each set against them [7]; patients with heart disease who continued to smoke [8]; people who continued to smoke, and never smokers [9]; people who continued to smoke [10]

Linked to about 29% more coronary heart disease and 32% more stroke with poor social relationships, and 34% more cardiovascular deaths with social isolation, in two meta-analyses.

Compared with people with better social relationships [4]; people who were not socially isolated [3]

Shown to cut major vascular events about 22% and deaths about 10% for each 1 mmol/L drop in LDL cholesterol, including in lower-risk people.

Shown to lower resting blood pressure by about 2 to 4.5 mmHg systolic and 3 mmHg diastolic with dynamic resistance training, and more with isometric training, in pooled trials.

Compared with non-exercising control groups [12][13]

Shown to lower blood pressure about 3 to 4 mmHg systolic and 1.5 to 2.5 mmHg diastolic in adults.

Shown to lower blood pressure by dose, about 8/3 mm Hg on hydrochlorothiazide 25 mg and 12/4 mm Hg on chlorthalidone in adults with high blood pressure.

Shown to cut stroke by about 64% against placebo or no treatment in adults with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation, with fewer deaths in one review.

Shown to cut stroke by about 39% more than antiplatelet drugs in atrial fibrillation, and to halve stroke against aspirin in adults aged 75 or over.

Linked to 19% lower coronary heart disease and 22% lower cardiovascular disease per three daily servings of whole grains, in pooled cohorts. The stroke link did not reach significance.

Compared with 90 g a day less whole grain, in a dose-response model [3]; the lowest whole grain intake [4]

Shown to lower deaths in the first 30 days after a heart attack, 7.1% against 7.6%, and more in long-term trials of people with a weakened left ventricle.

Shown to lower heart attack, stroke or cardiovascular death from 12.8% to 10.7% over about 4.5 years in adults with vascular disease and no heart failure.

Shown to lower blood pressure by about 3.3/1.3 mm Hg across 10 studies, with larger falls in one trial of adolescents with high uric acid.

Shown to lower blood pressure about 8/5 mm Hg more than placebo in high blood pressure, which the review authors called modest and likely an overestimate.

Compared with placebo [16][7]

Shown to lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure against control in a pooled analysis of 7 trials, with no difference from daily calorie restriction in a year-long trial.

Compared with eating every day, with no fasting days or daily fasting window

Shown to lower stroke, heart attack or vascular death slightly more than aspirin, 5.32% against 5.83% a year, in people with artery disease.

Shown to cut cardiovascular death, heart attack or stroke to 9.3% against 11.4% on aspirin alone in acute coronary syndromes, with more major bleeding.

Shown to cut stent clots to 0.4% against 1.4% and heart attacks to 2.1% against 4.1% when a thienopyridine was continued with aspirin beyond a year, with more bleeding.

Shown to cut stroke in the next 90 days to 8.2% against 11.7% on aspirin alone after a minor stroke or TIA in one of two trials.

Shown to cut stroke by about 22% against no treatment in atrial fibrillation, less than warfarin or apixaban did in direct comparisons.

Shown to cut preeclampsia by about 18% with low-dose aspirin in pregnancy, about 1 fewer case per 61 women treated.

Shown to lower stroke by about 10% and heart failure by 13% across 37 trials, with no reduction in heart attacks or deaths.

Shown to about halve the yearly growth of the aortic root in Marfan syndrome against control. Losartan did not differ from atenolol.

Shown to raise VO2 max and aerobic endurance in healthy adults and athletes, though results varied widely across small trials.

Shown to lower systolic blood pressure by about 1.4 mmHg in adults with overweight or obesity. Diastolic pressure did not change.

Shown to lower systolic blood pressure by about 1.6 mmHg for plant sterols and stanols as a class. HDL, blood sugar and weight did not change.

Shown to reduce self-reported stress and anxiety with a large effect (Hedges' g 0.83) against control conditions, in a meta-analysis of 24 studies.

Compared with control conditions the source abstract does not describe [9]

Shown to lower blood pressure by about 9/5.5 mm Hg at standard dose, similar to the other main classes of blood pressure drug.

Shown to lower stroke from 3.4% to 1.9% and total cardiovascular events from 8.0% to 5.7% against placebo, with no significant change in deaths.

Shown to lower hospital stays for angina and artery procedures in coronary disease, with no change in deaths. The trials tested amlodipine and nifedipine.

Shown to lower Raynaud's attacks by about 3 to 6 a week against placebo, with a small drop in attack severity.

Shown to raise flow-mediated dilation, a measure of artery widening, in middle-aged and older adults. Arterial stiffness did not change.

Shown to lower blood pressure: in one trial 50% of men on clonidine reached goal against 25% on placebo, similar to other drug classes, with more stopping for intolerance.

Compared with placebo [1][2]; hydrochlorothiazide, atenolol, captopril, diltiazem and prazosin [1]; spironolactone as a fourth drug [3]

Shown to lower deaths and heart failure hospitalizations in people with heart failure on standard therapy. The largest trial was funded by a CoQ10 maker.

Shown to lower systolic blood pressure by about 3.4 mmHg in adults. Diastolic pressure did not change, and no change was seen in people with diabetes.

Shown to raise heart rate variability for up to 15 minutes after cold exposure in healthy adults, alongside a slightly lower heart rate and slightly higher blood pressure.

Linked to 6% lower high blood pressure for each extra 200 g a day of milk or low-fat dairy, in pooled cohorts.

Compared with 200 g a day less milk or low-fat dairy, in a dose-response model [9]

Shown to improve blood vessel widening and lower insulin resistance in short trials of chocolate or cocoa, in one meta-analysis rated low to moderate quality.

Compared with control conditions the abstract does not describe [3]

Linked to about 20% lower rates of cardiovascular disease, coronary heart disease, stroke and diabetes in cohort studies, at low certainty.

Compared with people who followed DASH less closely [7]

Shown to cut repeat venous clots to 1.7% against 8.8% on placebo over a year with apixaban, and to 1.2% to 1.5% against 4.4% on aspirin with rivaroxaban.

Shown to prevent symptomatic clots after hip or knee replacement at least as well as enoxaparin injections, with rivaroxaban lower on clots and higher on bleeding.

Shown to lower heart attacks, strokes and related events about 6% when added to a statin, 267 against 284 per 1,000, mostly in people with recent heart disease.

Compared with a statin alone or with placebo [3][4]

Shown to lower systolic blood pressure by about 4 mm Hg and diastolic by about 2 mm Hg in pooled trials.

Compared with normal diets, a meal replacement, continuous energy restriction, a Mediterranean diet, a placebo or a supplement [1]; an unrestricted diet, in generally healthy US adults [5]

Shown to lower blood pressure about 3 mmHg systolic and 2.6 mmHg diastolic with quercetin alone, mainly above 500 mg a day.

Shown to lower systolic blood pressure by about 2.4 mmHg in overweight adults, in one meta-analysis of 3 small trials.

Compared with control groups in 3 randomized trials [2]; a control diet low in fruits and vegetables [4]

Shown to lower blood pressure by about 2 mmHg in pooled trials of green tea drinks and extracts, with no separate result for the drink.

Compared with control groups, including placebo capsules, water and low-catechin green tea drinks [5]

Shown to lower blood pressure about 2 mmHg in adults, more with extracts and in those starting at 130 mmHg or higher.

Shown to lower weight about 1 to 1.3 kg with spirulina or chlorella alone in adults. Reviews disagree on chlorella and cholesterol.

Shown to raise resting heart rate variability more than a fixed training plan in one meta-analysis, with no difference in resting heart rate.

Shown to raise ejection fraction and lower BNP over 2 to 4 weeks in people with heart failure, in pooled trials of 60°C far-infrared sessions.

Shown to improve 6-minute walk distance and symptom class in people with heart failure, though the largest trial missed its main endpoint, the change in BNP.

Shown to lower BMI slightly, about 0.6 kg/m², and glucose, triglycerides and blood pressure in adults across several conditions, at low certainty for some.

Shown to lower blood pressure by about 2 mm Hg against unrestricted eating in adults without diabetes, more in those starting with high pressure.

Compared with eating every day, with no fasting days or daily fasting window

Shown to lower blood pressure about 8/4 mm Hg more than placebo in high blood pressure, an estimate the review authors called likely too high.

Compared with placebo [9]

Shown to lower office blood pressure by about 5 to 9 mm Hg systolic in pooled trials. One review found no significant fall in out-of-office readings.

Compared with control groups the source abstract does not describe [11]; control arms the source abstract does not describe [12]; treatment as usual, waiting list, and active programs such as relaxation training, yoga, social support and health education [13]

Shown to lower heart attacks, strokes and cardiovascular deaths against minimal advice in adults at raised heart risk, with reviews disagreeing on how certain this is.

Compared with minimal intervention, such as a healthy diet brochure, and low-fat programmes, in a network meta-analysis [1]; a low-fat diet in the PREDIMED trial, and usual care in the Lyon Diet Heart Study [2]; a control diet of advice to reduce dietary fat, in Spanish adults [3]; a low-fat diet, in patients with coronary heart disease [4]; a prudent Western-type diet, in patients after a first heart attack [5]

Shown to lower blood pressure about 3/2 mmHg and LDL cholesterol and HbA1c slightly in adults, at low to moderate certainty.

Compared with no or minimal intervention, and another dietary intervention the abstract does not name [2]; a low-fat diet, a low-carbohydrate diet and the American Diabetes Association diet [7]; control diets the source does not describe [10]

Shown to lower diastolic pressure about 2 mmHg, with no clear change in systolic pressure except a 4 mmHg drop in adults 60 and older.

Shown to lower systolic blood pressure about 4 mmHg against usual diets in adults, though one trial found no change.

Compared with control groups the source does not describe [1]; a usual or habitual Nordic diet, a usual Western diet or general healthy eating advice [2]; the participants' usual Western diet, in Swedish adults [3]; an average Nordic diet with the same calories [4]; an average Danish diet, with all food supplied free [5]

Linked to lower death, heart attack, stroke and type 2 diabetes rates with higher adherence in cohort studies, at low certainty.

Compared with people with the lowest adherence to Nordic dietary patterns, in European cohorts [2]; people with lower adherence to the Nordic dietary pattern [9]; people in the lowest category of Nordic diet adherence [10]

Linked to about 19% to 31% fewer cardiovascular deaths in pet or dog owners in two meta-analyses of cohorts. One review found no link for dogs alone.

Compared with people without a dog [1]; people without pets [2]; people without a dog, in single- and multiple-person households [3]

Linked to more walking in dog owners in one meta-analysis. In a controlled study, getting a dog added about 2,600 daily steps at 3 months, gone by 8 months.

Compared with people without a dog [5]; people who delayed getting a dog and people with no plans to get one [6]; young people without a family dog [7]

Shown to lower stroke about 14% and death about 12% with a potassium salt substitute, mostly from one trial in older rural Chinese adults at high stroke risk.

Shown to lower systolic blood pressure by about 4.6 mm Hg and heart rate by about 5 beats a minute in the short term, in pooled trials.

Compared with control groups the source abstract does not describe [14]

Shown to lower stroke by 14%, major heart events by 13% and death by 12% in one large trial of older Chinese adults, an effect that drives pooled results.

Compared with regular salt [10][7][8]

Shown to lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure by about 4 mmHg across heat therapy trials. An 8-week sauna trial in adults with coronary artery disease found no change.

Shown to raise vagally mediated heart rate variability during, right after and across weeks of slow breathing practice, in one meta-analysis of 223 studies.

Compared with control conditions the source abstract does not describe [12]; mindfulness meditation [4]

Shown to lower deaths in severe heart failure, 35% against 46% on placebo over 2 years, and heart failure hospital stays by 35%.

Shown to lower home systolic pressure by 8.7 mm Hg more than placebo when added to three drugs in resistant high blood pressure.

Linked to 17% less cardiovascular disease in one meta-analysis of cohorts, with two other reviews finding borderline lower cardiovascular death.

Compared with people doing no muscle-strengthening activity [1]; no exercise [2]; no resistance training [3]

Shown to lower blood pressure in people with hypertension by about 12 to 13 mm Hg systolic, in two meta-analyses, one of tai chi and one of Baduanjin qigong.

Compared with control groups the source abstract does not describe [5]; no intervention [6]; antihypertensive drugs alone [6]

Shown to improve endurance and time to exhaustion modestly in people, in small trials with low certainty.

Shown to lower stroke from 6.2% to 4.2%, coronary heart disease from 3.9% to 2.8% and deaths from 11.0% to 9.8% as first-line low-dose treatment.

Shown to lower systolic blood pressure by about 3 mmHg and diastolic by about 2 mmHg in forest settings, in one meta-analysis of 20 trials, with heart rate also lower.

Compared with non-forest environments [5]; people with lower greenspace exposure [2]; before the forest bathing, in the same people [6]; control conditions, mostly passive [7]

Shown to cut cardiovascular death or worsening heart failure, 9.9% against 15.3% on placebo, in adults with obesity and heart failure with preserved ejection fraction.

Linked to about 22 to 28% lower coronary heart disease in cohort studies, with no significant link to total cardiovascular death.

Compared with omnivores, in cohort studies [9]; non-vegetarian dietary patterns, in cohorts [10]; meat eaters in the same UK cohort (EPIC-Oxford) [11]

Shown to lower blood pressure about 3.8 mmHg systolic and 1.5 mmHg diastolic in short trials of adults.

Linked to 17% fewer cardiovascular events in people with a stronger sense of purpose in life, in one meta-analysis.

Compared with people with a lower sense of purpose in life [10]

Shown to cut repeat venous clots by about 95% against placebo when continued after three months, in one trial of first unprovoked clots.

Linked to about 1 major embolism per 100 patient-years with coumarin treatment in people with mechanical valves, against 4 without antithrombotic treatment.

Shown to cut clotting events by about 42% when people tested or managed their own INR, with no change in major bleeding.

Shown to raise fitness modestly across systematic reviews of activity tracker trials. One crossover study found a 1.5 mL/kg/min rise in estimated fitness over 8 weeks.

Shown to lower blood pressure about 8/5 mm Hg against waiting list or usual care in people with raised blood pressure, in pooled trials rated very low in quality.

Compared with waiting list [8]; usual care [9]

Shown in one meta-analysis to lower cortisol, ambulatory systolic pressure, resting heart rate, fasting glucose and LDL cholesterol more than active control activities.

Compared with active control interventions [11]

Small trials from one research group found fruits and vegetables slowed kidney function decline against usual care in kidney disease, about as much as sodium bicarbonate.

Compared with oral sodium bicarbonate [4]; oral sodium bicarbonate or usual care [5], [6]; people with a lower diet acid load [7]

One crossover trial found high-dose allopurinol lengthened exercise time before ECG changes by 43 seconds against placebo in people with stable angina.

One trial in healthy adults without obesity found 4 weeks of strict alternate-day fasting improved cardiovascular markers, with lower sICAM-1 and LDL after longer use.

Compared with eating every day, with no fasting days or daily fasting window

One trial found losartan lowered stroke by 25% against atenolol in adults with high blood pressure and an enlarged left ventricle, at similar blood pressure.

Limited evidence: astragalus, mostly by injection, lowered urine protein in diabetic kidney disease in low-quality trials. One oral trial slowed kidney function decline but not albuminuria.

One small crossover trial found metoprolol and carvedilol lowered 24-hour heart rate in permanent atrial fibrillation, from 96 beats a minute to 82 and 84.

Small trials found propranolol removed physical symptoms of stage fright in musicians and raised performance quality as scored by critics.

One small crossover trial found diltiazem and verapamil lowered 24-hour heart rate in permanent atrial fibrillation, from 96 beats a minute to 75 and 81.

One trial found less atrial fibrillation recurrence with about a cup a day than with abstaining from coffee, 47% against 64%, after cardioversion.

Compared with abstaining from coffee and caffeine [16]; people drinking one cup a day fewer [17]

Linked to slightly lower heart disease and stroke in cohort meta-analyses, with the lowest risk near 45 g a week, rated low credibility.

Compared with people eating 20 g a week less [4]; people eating 10 g a day less [5]

One trial found cardiovascular death, stroke or heart attack in 4.1% on low-dose rivaroxaban plus aspirin against 5.4% on aspirin alone, with more major bleeding.

One trial found stroke or systemic embolism at 1.6% a year on apixaban against 3.7% on aspirin, with no significant rise in major bleeding.

One large trial found major cardiovascular events in 12.0% on dulaglutide against 13.4% on placebo over 5.4 years in adults with type 2 diabetes.

Compared with placebo [6]; other glucose-lowering drugs in a network meta-analysis [2]

One open-label trial found ezetimibe lowered heart events about a third against usual care in Japanese adults 75 or older without heart disease, with no change in deaths or strokes.

Compared with usual care with dietary counseling [5]

One trial found a moderate statin with ezetimibe matched a high-intensity statin on heart events over 3 years, 9.1% against 9.9%, with fewer people stopping for intolerance.

Compared with high-intensity statin alone, rosuvastatin 20 mg [6]

One trial found about 43% fewer serious cardiovascular events with 4 g a day in adults on hemodialysis, who have very high cardiovascular risk.

Limited evidence: in a review of 4 trials in healthy adults, replacing part of animal protein with plant protein lowered LDL and total cholesterol. No study measured heart disease itself.

Compared with diets with a higher share of animal protein foods [9]

One trial found GABA-rich Chlorella lowered systolic pressure more than placebo in adults with high-normal blood pressure. GABA alone was not tested.

One randomized trial found a community garden plot added about 6 minutes a day of moderate to vigorous activity during the growing season, against a waiting list.

Compared with a waiting list for a community garden plot [7]

Limited evidence: habitual glucosamine use was linked to about 15% fewer cardiovascular events in UK adults. No trial has tested this.

One trial without placebo found shorter venous reflux time and lower symptom scores with 150 mg twice a day in adults with varicose veins.

One small trial found less leg swelling during 6 hours of sitting in healthy Japanese women.

One uncontrolled study of 10 adults found red blood cells carried more surface charge and clumped less on slides after 2 hours grounded. Blood viscosity itself was not measured.

Compared with blood samples taken before grounding, in the same people [8]

One sham-controlled trial found higher VO2 max after 40 sessions in middle-aged master athletes, with 31 of 37 randomized participants analyzed.

One non-randomized study found cardiac events in 31.3% of heart failure patients who continued Waon therapy for 5 years, against 68.7% of matched controls.

One small trial found fewer premature ventricular beats after 2 weeks of daily sessions in people with heart failure, 848 against 3,097 per 24 hours.

Small studies found better artery dilation after 2 to 3 weeks of daily sessions in men with coronary risk factors and in people with heart failure.

One small trial found less leg pain and longer walking distance after 6 weeks of daily Waon therapy in people with peripheral artery disease.

One trial found 42% fewer cardiovascular events over a mean 17 years in people with type 1 diabetes first assigned to intensive insulin treatment.

One trial found fewer major cardiovascular events, 13.0% against 14.9% on placebo, in adults with type 2 diabetes at high cardiovascular risk.

One open-label trial found fewer repeat strokes within 90 days, 7.9% against 13.8%, in adults with type 2 diabetes after a minor stroke.

Limited evidence: label trials found torsemide cut weight and swelling more than placebo in heart failure, and higher furosemide doses removed more fluid in acute heart failure.

Compared with placebo [1]; a lower furosemide dose [2]

One trial from before statins found 11% lower mortality at 15 years in men after a heart attack, appearing after treatment had stopped.

Linked to 21% to 29% lower cardiovascular disease per daily serving in cohort meta-analyses. Stroke was not significantly linked.

Compared with people eating 28 g a day less [6]; people eating one serving a day less, and the lowest intake group [7]

One trial found 28% fewer heart attacks, strokes or heart deaths with a Mediterranean diet plus mixed nuts than with advice to cut dietary fat.

Compared with a control diet with advice to reduce dietary fat [8]

One large trial found fewer major cardiovascular events on a Mediterranean diet with extra virgin olive oil than on low-fat advice, 3.8% against 4.4%.

Compared with a control diet of advice to reduce dietary fat [7]

Small trials found sildenafil raised exercise capacity only at very low oxygen, about 3,900 m and above, with no change at lower altitudes.

One trial found walking distance rose about 45 to 50 m more than placebo over 12 weeks in people with pulmonary arterial hypertension.

One open-label trial found fewer arrhythmia events, hospitalizations and deaths when potassium was raised with supplements or a drug in adults with a defibrillator.

One small trial found better VO2 max, grip strength and mood scores than placebo in sedentary female students over 30 days.

One trial found estimated VO2 max rose 2.7 mL/kg/min more when a 15-minute sauna followed each exercise session for 8 weeks, in 47 sedentary adults.

Small trials found longer run time to exhaustion and higher VO2 max in trained runners after 3 weeks of post-training sauna sessions.

Linked to fewer cardiovascular deaths in Finnish cohorts, with a hazard ratio of 0.37 for sudden cardiac death at 4 to 7 sessions a week against one.

Linked to fewer strokes in Finnish men and women, with a hazard ratio of 0.38 at 4 to 7 sessions a week against one.

Linked to fewer new cases of hypertension in Finnish men, with a hazard ratio of 0.53 at 4 to 7 sessions a week against one.

One large trial found major cardiovascular events in 6.5% on semaglutide against 8.0% on placebo in adults with heart disease and overweight, without diabetes.

One cohort of women nurses linked more years since leaving rotating night shift work to lower coronary heart disease risk.

Compared with nurses with a history of shift work who had left it more recently [3]

One trial of 36 adults found 30 daily breaths against high resistance lowered systolic pressure from 135 to 126 mm Hg over 6 weeks. Sham training did not.

Compared with low-resistance sham training [11]

One cohort of 229 adults aged 50 to 68 found loneliness at the start predicted larger rises in systolic blood pressure over the next 4 years.

Compared with less lonely people in the same cohort [10]

One small study found UVA light on the skin lowered blood pressure in 24 healthy volunteers, with signs of nitric oxide released from the skin.

Compared with a control condition the source abstract does not describe [12]

One trial of 342 adults with prehypertension found a year of tai chi lowered office systolic pressure 2.4 mm Hg more than aerobic exercise of the same schedule.

Compared with aerobic exercise, four 60-minute supervised sessions a week [7]

One trial found better blood vessel function within 1 month in smokers who switched to e-cigarettes, with or without nicotine, than in those who kept smoking.

Compared with people who kept smoking, a nonrandomized preference group [6]

One trial found death, repeat heart attack or stroke in 16.7% on warfarin against 20.0% on aspirin after a heart attack, with more major bleeding.