Volunteering and purpose
Meta-analyses of cohorts link volunteering in later life to about 22% to 24% fewer deaths, and a stronger sense of purpose to fewer deaths, heart events and dementia. Links with mood and memory were smaller, and trials did not confirm the mood benefits. Reviews found few harms, while lower wellbeing appeared at very high volunteering hours.
- Status
- A daily life factor, not a product.
- Also called
- volunteering, volunteer work, voluntary work, unpaid community work, helping others, civic engagement, giving back, sense of purpose, purpose in life, meaning in life, life purpose, generativity
- Studied for
- living longer, mood, depression, wellbeing, memory and thinking in older age, dementia prevention, heart health, staying active in retirement, loneliness
Strong several reviews agree · Moderate one review or consistent trials · Limited one or a few small studies · Untested no study in people, listed with what it rests on
Shown to help6
- StrongLinked to about 22% to 24% fewer deaths in older adults who volunteered, in three meta-analyses of cohorts after adjusting for health.
- StrongLinked to about 17% to 24% fewer deaths in people with a stronger sense of purpose in life, in two meta-analyses of cohorts.
- StrongLinked to fewer depressive and anxiety symptoms in people with a stronger sense of purpose in life, in two meta-analyses, moderate correlations.
- ModerateLinked to better memory and verbal fluency in older volunteers in 16 of 17 studies in one review. One large US cohort found no link with cognitive impairment.
- ModerateLinked to 17% fewer cardiovascular events in people with a stronger sense of purpose in life, in one meta-analysis.
- ModerateLinked to 23% less dementia in people with a stronger sense of purpose in life, in one meta-analysis of six samples followed up to 17 years.
Reported risks2
- LimitedOne study found an inverted U shape: people volunteering at high levels had lower wellbeing scores than those volunteering at moderate levels.How often is not known
- LimitedLimited evidence: a review found post-traumatic stress, depression and anxiety reported in volunteers after natural disasters, more often in community and spontaneous volunteers.How often is not known
What it was studied for, and what was found
Shown to help6
Death from any cause in older volunteers
Linked to about 22% to 24% fewer deaths in older adults who volunteered, in three meta-analyses of cohorts after adjusting for health.
Compared with older adults who did not volunteer [1]; non-volunteers [2]; non-volunteers in studies with a well-defined control group [3]; people who volunteered 0 hours a year [4]
The numbers and sources
- Effect
- After adjustment for health and other factors, volunteering was linked to 24% lower mortality (95% CI 16% to 31%), and to 47% lower without adjustment [1]. Volunteers had lower mortality (RR 0.78, 95% CI 0.66 to 0.90) [2]. In people 65 and older, volunteers had lower mortality (HR 0.76, 95% CI 0.72 to 0.80) with no heterogeneity between studies [3]. Volunteering 100 hours or more a year was linked to lower mortality over 4 years [4].
- Population
- Adults aged 55 and older in organizational volunteering studies [1]. 5 cohort studies [2]. Adults 65 and older in 10 mortality studies, average follow-up 5 years [3]. 12,998 US adults over 50 [4].
- Sources
- [1], [2], [3], [4]
- Caveats
- Observational. People in better health, with more money and more social ties, are more able to volunteer, which is confounding and reverse causation. Adjustment cut the link by about half [1].
Memory and thinking in older volunteers
Linked to better memory and verbal fluency in older volunteers in 16 of 17 studies in one review. One large US cohort found no link with cognitive impairment.
Compared with older adults who did not volunteer [5]; retired seniors who did not volunteer or volunteered only on and off [6]; people who volunteered 0 hours a year [4]
The numbers and sources
- Effect
- Sixteen of 17 longitudinal studies and trials found a positive link between volunteering and cognition, with better episodic memory, working memory and verbal fluency [5]. Seniors who volunteered continuously reported fewer cognitive complaints over time and were about 2.4 times less likely to be prescribed an anti-dementia drug [6]. In a 4-year US cohort, volunteering was not linked to cognitive impairment [4].
- Population
- 17 studies, mostly in high-income countries [5]. 1,001 retired Swedish seniors over 5 years [6]. 12,998 US adults over 50 [4].
- Sources
- [5], [6], [4]
- Caveats
- Observational for the most part. Early cognitive decline makes people stop volunteering, which is reverse causation. Drug prescriptions are an indirect measure of dementia [6].
Purpose in life and death from any cause
Linked to about 17% to 24% fewer deaths in people with a stronger sense of purpose in life, in two meta-analyses of cohorts.
Compared with people with a lower sense of purpose in life [10][11]
The numbers and sources
- Effect
- Higher purpose in life was linked to lower mortality (adjusted RR 0.83, 95% CI 0.75 to 0.91) [10]. Across 25 samples, purpose was linked to lower mortality (HR 0.76, 95% CI 0.70 to 0.83), 0.85 after adjusting for behavior and clinical risk factors, and 0.91 after adjusting for depression [11].
- Population
- 136,265 participants in 10 prospective studies [10]. 488,765 participants with 48,928 deaths, followed up to 32 years [11].
- Sources
- [10], [11]
- Caveats
- Observational, with purpose measured by questionnaire. Adjustment for health habits and depression shrank the link, so part of it runs through them [11]. Illness can lower a sense of purpose, which is reverse causation.
Purpose in life and heart events
Linked to 17% fewer cardiovascular events in people with a stronger sense of purpose in life, in one meta-analysis.
Compared with people with a lower sense of purpose in life [10]
The numbers and sources
- Effect
- Higher purpose in life was linked to fewer cardiovascular events (adjusted RR 0.83, 95% CI 0.75 to 0.92), with similar results by country, questionnaire, age and baseline heart disease [10].
- Population
- 136,265 participants in 10 prospective studies [10].
- Sources
- [10]
- Caveats
- Observational. One review with overlapping cohorts for death and heart events.
Purpose in life and dementia
Linked to 23% less dementia in people with a stronger sense of purpose in life, in one meta-analysis of six samples followed up to 17 years.
Compared with people with a lower sense of purpose in life [12]
The numbers and sources
- Effect
- Greater purpose was linked to lower dementia risk (HR 0.77, 95% CI 0.73 to 0.81). The link held after adjusting for depression and physical inactivity and did not differ by age, gender or education [12].
- Population
- 53,499 people with 5,862 new dementia cases in 6 samples [12].
- Sources
- [12]
- Caveats
- Observational. Dementia changes motivation for years before diagnosis, so low purpose may be an early sign rather than a cause.
Purpose in life and depression
Linked to fewer depressive and anxiety symptoms in people with a stronger sense of purpose in life, in two meta-analyses, moderate correlations.
Compared with people with a lower sense of purpose in life [13][14]
The numbers and sources
- Effect
- Purpose in life correlated with lower depression (r -0.49, 95% CI -0.52 to -0.45) and lower anxiety (r -0.36) [13]. In 71 of 72 samples, purpose was linked to fewer depressive symptoms (estimate -0.32, 95% CI -0.35 to -0.30), and each standard deviation more purpose to lower odds of severe distress (OR 0.53) [14].
- Population
- 66,468 people in 99 samples [13]. 531,038 participants in 72 samples across six world regions [14].
- Sources
- [13], [14]
- Caveats
- Mostly measured at one time, so depression lowering purpose is as likely as the reverse. The two concepts overlap in how they are asked about.
Mixed results3
Mood and depression in volunteers
Mixed results: cohorts linked volunteering to slightly less depression and more wellbeing, but randomized trials reviewed in 2013 did not confirm these benefits.
Compared with non-volunteers, in cohorts and trials [2]; non-volunteers [3]; people who volunteered 0 hours a year [4]
The numbers and sources
- Effect
- Cohort studies showed favorable effects on depression, life satisfaction and wellbeing, and experimental studies did not confirm them [2]. In people 65 and older, three studies gave a small effect on depression (SMD 0.12, 95% CI 0.00 to 0.23) [3]. Volunteering 100 hours or more a year was linked to more positive affect, optimism and purpose, and fewer depressive symptoms, less hopelessness and less loneliness, but not to less diagnosed depression or negative affect [4].
- Population
- 40 papers, 5 randomized trials and 17 cohort studies [2]. 3 studies of adults 65 and older [3]. 12,998 US adults over 50 [4].
- Sources
- [2], [3], [4]
- Caveats
- The pooled effect sat at the edge of no difference [3]. Mood was self-reported, and the trials were few and small [2].
Physical function in older volunteers
Mixed results: one meta-analysis linked volunteering after 65 to 17% less functional disability, while an earlier review found no favorable effect on physical health.
Compared with non-volunteers [3]; non-volunteers [2]; people who volunteered 0 hours a year [4]
The numbers and sources
- Effect
- Volunteers had less new functional disability (HR 0.83, 95% CI 0.72 to 0.97) and kept functional competence more often (OR 0.81, 95% CI 0.70 to 0.94). Decline in daily living tasks did not differ significantly (OR 0.73, 95% CI 0.53 to 1.01) [3]. Cohort studies did not show favorable effects on physical health [2]. Volunteering 100 hours or more a year was linked to fewer physical functioning limitations and more physical activity [4].
- Population
- Adults 65 and older in 3 disability and 3 functional competence studies [3]. 17 cohort studies [2]. 12,998 US adults over 50 [4].
- Sources
- [3], [2], [4]
- Caveats
- Observational. People with better function are more able to start and keep volunteering, which is reverse causation.
A school volunteering program in a randomized trial
One trial of a school volunteering program found no change in a standard thinking test by intention to treat. Brain volume rose in men, against declines in controls.
Compared with a low-activity control group [7]; controls in the same trial [8]; controls offered usual volunteer opportunities [9]
The numbers and sources
- Effect
- On a timed attention test, intention-to-treat analyses found no significant improvement, while people with the highest attendance showed less variability in speed at 24 months [7]. Over 2 years, men in the program gained 0.7% to 1.6% in cortical and hippocampal volume while men in the control group declined, and women in the program gained 0.3% to 0.54% against declines of about 1% in controls. Only the gains in men were significant [8]. Volunteers reported higher generativity, a sense of contributing to others, at each follow-up [9].
- Population
- 336 older adults without dementia [7]. 111 men and women in the brain imaging study [8]. Older adults in the Baltimore Experience Corps Trial, randomized to serve as tutors in elementary schools or to control [9].
- Sources
- [7], [8], [9]
- Caveats
- One trial with small imaging and cognition subsamples. Brain volume is not a measure of memory or dementia. The cognition gains appeared only in people who attended most [7].
Amounts studied
Studies measured formal volunteering through an organization, unpaid and planned [3], in adults 55 and older [1] or 65 and older [3]. The US cohort compared 100 hours or more a year with none [4]. An Australian study of adults aged 64 to 68 related weekly hours to wellbeing [15]. The Swedish study compared continuous, on-and-off and no volunteering over 5 years [6]. The Experience Corps trial placed older adults as tutors in elementary schools for 2 years [8][9].
Purpose in life was measured by questionnaire, and the results did not differ by which questionnaire was used [10].
Risks
Reported risks2
Lower wellbeing at very high volunteering hours
One study found an inverted U shape: people volunteering at high levels had lower wellbeing scores than those volunteering at moderate levels.
The numbers and sources
- How common
- How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
- Effect
- The link between hours spent volunteering and psychological wellbeing formed inverted U shapes. Non-volunteers and those volunteering at high levels scored lower than those volunteering at moderate levels, after controlling for work, partner status, physical health and education [15].
- Population
- 2,136 Australian adults aged 64 to 68 [15].
- Sources
- [15]
- Caveats
- One cross-sectional study. The abstract does not give the hours at which wellbeing fell.
Mental health effects in disaster volunteers
Limited evidence: a review found post-traumatic stress, depression and anxiety reported in volunteers after natural disasters, more often in community and spontaneous volunteers.
The numbers and sources
- How common
- How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
- Effect
- Post-traumatic stress symptoms were the outcome most studied, followed by depression, anxiety and stress. Distress occurred in every volunteer group. Trauma exposure and disaster-related losses were risk factors, and training and organizational support were protective [16].
- Population
- 4,083 adult volunteers in 17 studies, mostly cross-sectional [16].
- Sources
- [16]
- Caveats
- A narrative review with no rates and no comparison with non-volunteers [16]. It covers disaster work only.
Checked, no increase found1
Harms in older volunteers
Not found in two reviews of older adult volunteering, which reported no or negligible harms against benefits and noted harms may be under-reported.
The numbers and sources
- How common
- How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
- Effect
- A Campbell review found no adverse effects of volunteering in people 65 and older [3]. A mixed methods review of 182 papers found negligible reports of harms compared with benefits [17].
- Population
- Adults 65 and older in 24 pooled studies [3]. 182 papers, including 11 papers from 5 randomized trials at high risk of bias [17].
- Sources
- [3], [17]
- Caveats
- Harms were rarely measured, and the reviewers note they may be under-reported [17].
Claims tested and not found
- That volunteering prevents chronic disease. In 12,998 US adults over 50, volunteering was not linked to later diabetes, hypertension, stroke, cancer, heart disease, lung disease, arthritis or obesity [4].
- That the mental health links seen in cohorts hold in trials. A review of 5 randomized trials and 4 non-randomized studies did not confirm the cohort findings on depression and wellbeing [2].
- That more volunteering hours always bring more wellbeing. Wellbeing was lower at high levels of volunteering than at moderate levels [15].
- That a school volunteering program improves standard thinking test scores. Intention-to-treat analyses of the Experience Corps trial found no significant improvement [7].
Related
Sources
- Okun MA, Yeung EW, Brown S. Volunteering by older adults and risk of mortality: a meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031519
- Jenkinson CE, Dickens AP, Jones K, et al. Is volunteering a public health intervention? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the health and survival of volunteers. BMC Public Health. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-773
- Filges T, Siren A, Fridberg T, Nielsen BCV. Voluntary work for the physical and mental health of older volunteers: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1124
- Kim ES, Whillans AV, Lee MT, Chen Y, VanderWeele TJ. Volunteering and Subsequent Health and Well-Being in Older Adults: An Outcome-Wide Longitudinal Approach. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2020.03.004
- Sharifi S, Babaei Khorzoughi K, Rahmati M. The relationship between volunteering and cognitive performance in older adults: A systematic review. Geriatric Nursing. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gerinurse.2023.10.020
- Griep Y, Hanson LM, Vantilborgh T, et al. Can volunteering in later life reduce the risk of dementia? A 5-year longitudinal study among volunteering and non-volunteering retired seniors. PLOS ONE. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0173885
- Brydges CR, Carlson MC, Andrews RM, Rebok GW, Bielak AAM. Using Cognitive Intraindividual Variability to Measure Intervention Effectiveness: Results from the Baltimore Experience Corps Trial. The Journals of Gerontology Series B. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbaa009
- Carlson MC, Kuo JH, Chuang YF, et al. Impact of the Baltimore Experience Corps Trial on cortical and hippocampal volumes. Alzheimer's and Dementia. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2014.12.005
- Gruenewald TL, Tanner EK, Fried LP, et al. The Baltimore Experience Corps Trial: Enhancing Generativity via Intergenerational Activity Engagement in Later Life. The Journals of Gerontology Series B. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbv005
- Cohen R, Bavishi C, Rozanski A. Purpose in Life and Its Relationship to All-Cause Mortality and Cardiovascular Events: A Meta-Analysis. Psychosomatic Medicine. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000274
- Sutin A, Zavala D, Milad E, et al. Purpose in life and mortality: A meta-analysis of the published literature and individual-participant data of 488,765 participants followed for up to 32 years. Psychological Medicine. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291726104863
- Sutin AR, Aschwanden D, Luchetti M, Stephan Y, Terracciano A. Sense of Purpose in Life Is Associated with Lower Risk of Incident Dementia: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease. 2021. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-210364
- Boreham ID, Schutte NS. The relationship between purpose in life and depression and anxiety: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.23576
- Sutin AR, Luchetti M, Stephan Y, Karakose S, Mansor N, Terracciano A. Purpose in life and depressive symptoms: An individual-participant meta-analysis of more than 500,000 participants across six world regions. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.120881
- Windsor TD, Anstey KJ, Rodgers B. Volunteering and psychological well-being among young-old adults: how much is too much? The Gerontologist. 2008. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/48.1.59
- de Lima KA, Furukawa LH, Viola TW, Spanemberg L. Mental health outcomes across different categories of volunteers in natural disasters: a systematic review. Trends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy. 2026. https://doi.org/10.47626/2237-6089-2025-1159
- Williams N, Maghidman M, Pu D, et al. Health benefits and harms of older adult volunteering: mixed methods systematic review. The Gerontologist. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnag043