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Research · Medication

Acne creams and gels

Pooled trials found benzoyl peroxide improved acne more than placebo, and combinations with clindamycin or adapalene more than either alone. Dapsone and clascoterone raised clear or almost clear rates by about 9 to 14 points over vehicle. Topical antibiotics alone gave mild, inconsistent benefit, and resistance is common. Irritation is the main side effect.

Add to Bio HackChecked 2026-11-14
Status
In the US, benzoyl peroxide washes, gels and spot treatments (up to 10%) and salicylic acid acne products (such as 2% washes and serums) are sold over the counter as acne medications. Topical clindamycin, erythromycin 2%, dapsone gel (Aczone 7.5%, for ages 9 and up) and clascoterone 1% cream (Winlevi, for ages 12 and up) are prescription drugs, FDA-approved for acne vulgaris. Azelaic acid 20% cream (Azelex) is a prescription drug for mild to moderate inflammatory acne, and azelaic acid 15% gel and foam (Finacea) are prescription drugs for rosacea. Topical retinoids have their own page.
Also called
benzoyl peroxide, BPO, PanOxyl, Clearasil, Proactiv, topical clindamycin, Cleocin T, Clindagel, clindamycin and benzoyl peroxide, BenzaClin, Duac, Onexton, topical erythromycin, Erygel, erythromycin and benzoyl peroxide, Benzamycin, azelaic acid, Azelex, Finacea, salicylic acid, acne wash, topical dapsone, Aczone, clascoterone, Winlevi
Taken for
acne, pimples, blackheads, whiteheads, inflamed acne, hormonal acne, rosacea, dark spots and melasma, oily skin

Strong several reviews agree · Moderate one review or consistent trials · Limited one or a few small studies · Untested no study in people, listed with what it rests on

Shown to help7

Reported risks10

What people take it for, and what was found

Shown to help7

StrongVery common

Acne improvement with benzoyl peroxide

Shown to improve acne more than placebo, 35% against 26% reporting improvement, and about as much as adapalene or clindamycin, on low-certainty evidence.

Compared with placebo, vehicle or no treatment [1][2]; adapalene and clindamycin [1]

The numbers and sources
How common
Very common: more than 1 in 10 people.
Effect
Benzoyl peroxide raised participant-reported acne improvement against placebo or no treatment (RR 1.27, 95% CI 1.12 to 1.45, 3 trials, 2,234 people, 10 to 12 weeks). It did not differ from adapalene (RR 0.99, 95% CI 0.90 to 1.10) or clindamycin (RR 0.95, 95% CI 0.68 to 1.34) [1]. In a network meta-analysis, 35% on benzoyl peroxide and 26% on vehicle reported improvement [2].
Population
120 trials with 29,592 people, mostly aged 18 to 30 with mild to moderate acne [1]; 40 trials with 18,089 people with mild to moderate acne [2].
Sources
[1], [2]
Caveats
Certainty was low, many trials were at high or unclear risk of bias, and 50 were industry funded [1]. Overall confidence in the network was low [2].
ModerateVery common

Combining benzoyl peroxide with clindamycin or adapalene

Shown to improve acne more as a combination than benzoyl peroxide alone, 49% with clindamycin and 54% with adapalene against 35% with benzoyl peroxide alone.

Compared with benzoyl peroxide alone [2]; single drugs and other combinations in a network [3]

The numbers and sources
How common
Very common: more than 1 in 10 people.
Effect
Self-reported improvement was 49% with benzoyl peroxide plus clindamycin and 54% with benzoyl peroxide plus adapalene, against 35% with benzoyl peroxide alone [2]. Across 221 trials, triple therapy with a topical antibiotic, a topical retinoid and benzoyl peroxide gave the second largest fall in total lesion count after oral isotretinoin (mean difference 38.15 percentage points) [3].
Population
40 trials with 18,089 people [2]; 221 trials with 65,601 people, mean age 20.4, median 12 weeks [3].
Sources
[2], [3]
Caveats
Low confidence in the network estimates [2]. Withdrawals were slightly higher with the combinations, in the risk blocks below.
StrongVery common

Acne improvement with dapsone gel

Shown to raise the share of people with clear or almost clear acne, 30% against 21% on vehicle, in two large trials and two meta-analyses.

Compared with vehicle gel [5][6]; placebo and other topical antibiotics [4]

The numbers and sources
How common
Very common: more than 1 in 10 people.
Effect
In two 12-week trials of dapsone 7.5% once daily, 30% on dapsone and 21% on vehicle reached a global acne score of clear or almost clear in each trial. Inflammatory lesions fell by 16.1 against 14.3 and 15.6 against 14.0 [5]. Pooling 7 trials, dapsone gel alone or with isotretinoin did better than vehicle or isotretinoin alone (OR 1.51, 95% CI 1.38 to 1.66) [6]. In a network of topical antibiotics, dapsone 5% lowered inflammatory lesion counts against placebo (-29.8, 95% CI -55.4 to -4.1) [4].
Population
2,162 and 2,238 people aged 12 and older in two trials [5]; 11,424 participants in 7 trials [6]; 34 trials [4].
Sources
[5], [6], [4]
Caveats
The lesion count differences against vehicle were small [5].
ModerateVery common

Acne improvement with clascoterone cream

Shown to raise clear or almost clear acne to about 19% to 21% from 7% to 9% on vehicle over 12 weeks, mostly by reducing non-inflamed lesions.

Compared with vehicle cream [7][8]

The numbers and sources
How common
Very common: more than 1 in 10 people.
Effect
In two 12-week label trials, success on the global assessment was 18.8% against 8.7% and 20.9% against 6.6% on vehicle. Non-inflammatory lesions fell 32.6% against 21.8% and 29.6% against 15.7%, and inflammatory lesions 44.6% against 36.3% and 47.1% against 29.7% [7]. Pooling 5 trials, clascoterone raised global success (RR 2.87, 95% CI 2.11 to 3.89) and lowered non-inflammatory lesions (MD -5.64, 95% CI -8.41 to -2.87) but not inflammatory lesions (MD -1.82, 95% CI -5.06 to 1.43) [8].
Population
1,421 people aged 12 and older, 62% female [7]; 5 trials with 2,457 people [8].
Sources
[7], [8]
Caveats
The meta-analysis includes the label trials [8].
Moderate

Acne improvement with azelaic acid

Shown to improve acne more than vehicle, and slightly less than benzoyl peroxide in one trial, with little difference from tretinoin or clindamycin.

Compared with vehicle and erythromycin gel [9]; benzoyl peroxide, tretinoin, clindamycin and adapalene [10]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Across 16 acne trials, azelaic acid improved global assessments and acne severity more than vehicle, and azelaic acid 20% reduced more lesions than erythromycin gel [9]. Against benzoyl peroxide it gave a lower treatment response (RR 0.82, 95% CI 0.72 to 0.95, 1 trial, 351 people). It did not clearly differ from tretinoin (RR 0.94, 95% CI 0.78 to 1.14) or clindamycin (RR 1.13, 95% CI 0.92 to 1.38) [10].
Population
16 acne trials of at least 6 weeks [9]; trials within 49 studies of 3,880 people, mostly aged 12 to 30 [10].
Sources
[9], [10]
Caveats
Each head-to-head comparison rests on one trial [10]. The acne findings in [9] are not given as pooled numbers.
Moderate

Rosacea with azelaic acid

Shown to reduce rosacea redness and bumps more than vehicle over 12 weeks, and more than metronidazole 0.75%, in a meta-analysis of 20 trials.

Compared with vehicle and metronidazole 0.75% [9]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Pooled rosacea trials found erythema severity, inflammatory lesion counts, overall improvement and treatment success improved with azelaic acid against vehicle after 12 weeks. Azelaic acid improved erythema, overall improvement and lesion counts more than metronidazole 0.75% [9].
Population
20 rosacea trials [9].
Sources
[9]
Caveats
The abstract does not give effect sizes [9].
Moderate

Dark patches (melasma) with azelaic acid

Shown to improve melasma more than vehicle with azelaic acid 20%, and global improvement more than hydroquinone 2%, in seven trials.

Compared with vehicle and hydroquinone 2% [9]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Azelaic acid 20% improved melasma severity and global improvement more than vehicle, and global improvement more than hydroquinone 2% [9].
Population
7 melasma trials [9].
Sources
[9]
Caveats
Melasma is not an FDA-approved use, and the abstract gives no effect sizes [9]. No trial of azelaic acid for skin aging met the review's criteria [9].

Mixed results2

Moderate

Topical clindamycin or erythromycin used alone

Mixed results: used alone, topical antibiotics gave mild and inconsistent benefit over placebo, and none lowered the total lesion count.

Compared with placebo and other topical antibiotics [4]; other acne drugs in a network [3]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Against placebo, erythromycin 2% lowered inflammatory lesion counts (-24.0, 95% CI -45.7 to -2.1) and non-inflammatory counts (-42.0, 95% CI -69.8 to -14.0). Clindamycin 1% raised the odds of global improvement (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.1 to 2.3). No topical antibiotic lowered the total lesion count [4]. Across 221 trials, topical antibiotics were comparable to topical retinoids for inflammatory lesions but had less effect on non-inflammatory lesions [3].
Population
34 trials with 22,645 people [4]; 221 trials [3].
Sources
[4], [3]
Caveats
Results differed by lesion type and reporting was inconsistent [4].
Limited

Acne improvement with salicylic acid

Limited evidence: one small trial found salicylic acid did about as well as tretinoin, and no placebo-controlled result was reported in a Cochrane review.

Compared with tretinoin, pyruvic acid and benzoyl peroxide [10]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Participant-rated improvement did not differ between salicylic acid and tretinoin (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.92 to 1.09, 1 trial, 46 people, low quality). Comparisons with pyruvic acid and benzoyl peroxide were very low quality or did not measure improvement [10]. The 2024 American Academy of Dermatology guideline gave salicylic acid a conditional recommendation based on its systematic review [11].
Population
Small trials within 49 studies [10]; the guideline's systematic review [11].
Sources
[10], [11]
Caveats
Low to very low quality evidence from small trials [10].

Doses studied

Benzoyl peroxide trials compared different concentrations and vehicles [1]. The over-the-counter 10% spot treatment label directs a thin layer one to three times a day, starting once a day [12]. Topical clindamycin is sold as 1% solution, gel and lotion [13]. Dapsone 7.5% gel is applied as a pea-sized amount to the face once a day [5]. Clascoterone 1% cream is applied twice a day, and trials ran 12 weeks [7]. Azelaic acid 20% cream is the acne product [14]. How much reaches the blood: after topical clindamycin, serum levels were 0 to 3 ng/mL and under 0.2% of the dose appeared in urine [13]. Dapsone 7.5% gave a mean peak plasma level of 13.0 ng/mL, about 1% of the exposure from a 100 mg oral dose [5]. Clascoterone gave a mean peak of 4.5 ng/mL in adults applying about 6 g twice a day [7]. About 4% of applied azelaic acid is absorbed [14].

Risks

Reported risks10

LimitedVery common

Dryness and burning with topical clindamycin

The label reports dryness in 18% to 23%, burning in 10% to 11% and redness in 7% to 16% of clindamycin users in trials, without vehicle rates.

The numbers and sources
How common
Very common: more than 1 in 10 people.
Effect
Across 18 trials of solution, gel and lotion, dryness occurred in 19%, 23% and 18%, burning in 11%, 10% and 11%, itching in 7%, 10% and 11%, redness in 16%, 7% and 14%, and oily skin in 1%, 18% and 10% [13].
Population
553 people on solution, 148 on gel and 160 on lotion [13].
Sources
[13]
Caveats
The label table does not give rates for vehicle or comparator groups, so the share caused by clindamycin is not known.
ModerateCommon

Dryness, redness and irritation with benzoyl peroxide

Shown to raise stopping treatment for side effects about twofold over placebo, mostly for redness, itching and burning, though withdrawals stayed under 3%.

The numbers and sources
How common
Common: between 1 in 100 and 1 in 10 people.
Effect
Withdrawal for side effects was higher with benzoyl peroxide than placebo or no treatment (RR 2.13, 95% CI 1.55 to 2.93, 24 trials, 13,744 people), most often for redness, itching and burning. Any side effect may have been more common (RR 1.40, 95% CI 1.15 to 1.70, very low certainty), most often dryness, irritation, dermatitis, redness, pain and itching [1]. In a network analysis, withdrawal for side effects was 1.6% on benzoyl peroxide, 2.5% with adapalene and 2.7% with clindamycin added [2]. The label warns it can bleach hair and dyed fabric and that irritation is more likely with another acne product at the same time [12].
Population
120 trials [1]; 35 trials reporting withdrawals [2]; labeling statement [12].
Sources
[1], [2], [12]
Caveats
Low or very low certainty [1].
ModerateCommon

Skin side effects and orange staining with dapsone gel

Shown to cause dryness and itching at about vehicle rates, 1.1% against 1.0% for dryness, with temporary yellow or orange skin when used with benzoyl peroxide.

The numbers and sources
How common
Common: between 1 in 100 and 1 in 10 people.
Effect
Application site dryness occurred in 1.1% on dapsone 7.5% and 1.0% on vehicle, and itching in 0.9% against 0.5%. Benzoyl peroxide used at the same time may cause temporary yellow or orange skin discoloration [5].
Population
2,161 people on dapsone and 2,175 on vehicle in two 12-week trials [5].
Sources
[5]
Caveats
Rates are close to vehicle.
LimitedCommon

Adrenal suppression with clascoterone

The label reports adrenal suppression after 2 weeks of clascoterone in 5% of adults and 9% of adolescents tested, all recovering within 4 weeks of stopping.

The numbers and sources
How common
Common: between 1 in 100 and 1 in 10 people.
Effect
With twice-daily use for 2 weeks, a stimulated cortisol of 18 mcg/dL or less was seen in 1 of 20 adults (5%) and 2 of 22 adolescents (9%). All returned to normal adrenal function 4 weeks after stopping [7].
Population
20 adults and 22 adolescents with moderate to severe acne in a pharmacokinetic trial [7].
Sources
[7]
Caveats
A small study at about 6 g per application, larger than typical use [7].
LimitedCommon

Raised potassium with clascoterone

The label reports potassium shifted from normal to high in 5% on clascoterone and 4% on vehicle in trials, and lists hyperkalemia as a warning.

The numbers and sources
How common
Common: between 1 in 100 and 1 in 10 people.
Effect
Shifts from normal to elevated potassium were observed in 5% of clascoterone-treated subjects and 4% of vehicle-treated subjects, and hyperkalemia is listed among adverse reactions [7].
Population
Clascoterone trial participants [7].
Sources
[7]
Caveats
The difference from vehicle is small, and the label gives no average change [7].
LimitedCommon

Itching, burning and lighter skin with azelaic acid

The label reports itching, burning, stinging and tingling in about 1% to 5% of azelaic acid users, and rare reports of lighter skin patches.

The numbers and sources
How common
Common: between 1 in 100 and 1 in 10 people.
Effect
The most common reactions were pruritus, burning, stinging and tingling in about 1% to 5%. Redness, dryness, rash, peeling and dermatitis occurred in under 1%. The label notes isolated reports of hypopigmentation and that azelaic acid has not been well studied in darker skin [14].
Population
Azelaic acid 20% trial participants [14].
Sources
[14]
Caveats
No vehicle rates are given on the label [14].
LimitedHow often is not known

Benzene in benzoyl peroxide products

One lab study found benzene in over-the-counter benzoyl peroxide products, rising with heat and sunlight, while a review found no study showing more blood cancers in users.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
Benzene, a carcinogen formed when benzoyl peroxide breaks down, was detected at 0.16 to 35.30 ppm in 111 over-the-counter products kept at room temperature. An encapsulated prescription product formed high levels at 50°C and none at 2°C, and benzene formed in air near treated plates exposed to UV light [15]. A review stated that studies after the first reports have not shown an increased risk of blood cancers [16].
Population
111 over-the-counter products and one prescription product tested in a laboratory [15]; review of studies in children and adolescents [16].
Sources
[15], [16]
Caveats
The product testing measured benzene in products and air, not in people [15]. The review abstract does not give the cancer study figures [16].
LimitedHow often is not known

Bowel inflammation with topical clindamycin

The label warns diarrhea, bloody diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis have been reported, rarely, with topical clindamycin, because some is absorbed through the skin.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
The label states topical clindamycin is absorbed from the skin and that diarrhea, bloody diarrhea and colitis, including pseudomembranous colitis, have been reported with topical as well as oral clindamycin. It is contraindicated with a history of regional enteritis, ulcerative colitis or antibiotic-associated colitis [13]. The erythromycin solution label warns that pseudomembranous colitis has been reported with nearly all antibacterial agents, including erythromycin [17].
Population
Labeling statement and reports [13][17].
Sources
[13], [17]
Caveats
The labels give no rate for topical use.
ModerateHow often is not known

Antibiotic resistance in acne bacteria

Shown in pooled lab studies that many acne bacteria isolates resist erythromycin, about 29% to 37%, and that clindamycin and erythromycin resistance has risen over time.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
One meta-analysis found resistance in 29.20% of isolates for erythromycin and 22.38% for clindamycin, with clindamycin and erythromycin resistance rising over time and higher in China [18]. Another found 36.6% for erythromycin and 3.1% for clindamycin [19].
Population
2,046 isolates in 23 studies from people with acne [18]; 39 studies [19].
Sources
[18], [19]
Caveats
The two reviews disagree on clindamycin. Rates are shares of bacterial isolates, not of people [18][19].
LimitedHow often is not known

Methemoglobinemia and hemolysis with dapsone gel

The label reports methemoglobinemia with hospitalization after dapsone gel, and lab signs of red cell breakdown in some users with G6PD deficiency.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
Cases of methemoglobinemia with hospitalization were reported after marketing of dapsone gel 5%. In a crossover trial of 64 people with G6PD deficiency, some developed lab changes suggestive of hemolysis on dapsone gel 5%, without clinically significant hemolytic anemia. The label advises avoiding use with oral dapsone or antimalarials, notes trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole raised dapsone levels and may raise hemolysis risk in G6PD deficiency, and lists drugs that raise methemoglobinemia risk, including sulfonamides, nitrates, nitroglycerin, nitrofurantoin, phenytoin and acetaminophen [5].
Population
Postmarketing reports and 64 people with G6PD deficiency and acne [5].
Sources
[5]
Caveats
No rate is given for methemoglobinemia.

Checked, no increase found2

Moderate

Skin reactions with clascoterone

Not shown to raise local skin reactions over vehicle in two 12-week trials, with redness in 12.2% against 15.4% on vehicle.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
New or worse local reactions on clascoterone and vehicle were redness 12.2% against 15.4%, scaling or dryness 10.5% against 10.4%, itching 7.7% against 8.2%, stinging or burning 4.2% against 4.3%, skin atrophy 1.6% against 2.6%, striae 2.5% against 1.5% and telangiectasia 1.2% against 1.8% [7].
Population
674 on clascoterone and 656 on vehicle with reactions recorded [7].
Sources
[7]
Caveats
Twelve weeks of follow-up.
LimitedStudied in pregnancy

Clindamycin in pregnancy

The label states clindamycin given by mouth or injection in the second and third trimesters was not linked to more birth defects, with no adequate first-trimester studies.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
In clinical trials with pregnant women, systemic clindamycin during the second and third trimesters was not associated with more congenital abnormalities. There are no adequate studies in the first trimester [13].
Population
Pregnant women in trials of systemic clindamycin, as summarized on the label [13].
Sources
[13]
Caveats
The data are for clindamycin by mouth or injection, which reaches far higher blood levels than topical use [13].

Claims tested and not found

  1. That a topical antibiotic alone clears acne lesions overall. In a network of 34 trials, no topical antibiotic lowered the total lesion count compared with placebo [4].
  2. That benzoyl peroxide raises blood cancer risk. A review stated that studies after reports of benzene in products have not shown an increased risk of blood cancers [16].

Sources

  1. Yang Z, Zhang Y, Lazic Mosler E, et al. Topical benzoyl peroxide for acne. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd011154.pub2
  2. Stuart B, Maund E, Wilcox C, et al. Topical preparations for the treatment of mild-to-moderate acne vulgaris: systematic review and network meta-analysis. British Journal of Dermatology. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.20080
  3. Huang CY, Chang IJ, Bolick N, et al. Comparative Efficacy of Pharmacological Treatments for Acne Vulgaris: A Network Meta-Analysis of 221 Randomized Controlled Trials. Annals of Family Medicine. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.2995
  4. Lyu M, Fan W, Yang H, et al. Topical Antibiotic Monotherapy Only Provides Mild Benefit for Patients with Acne Vulgaris: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-analysis. Clinical Drug Investigation. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40261-026-01553-z
  5. FDA label (DailyMed). Aczone (dapsone) gel 7.5%. Almirall, LLC. 2025. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=22058b7d-a578-4eaa-a476-ac982337f02a
  6. Wang X, Wang Z, Sun L, Liu H, Zhang F. Efficacy and safety of dapsone gel for acne: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Annals of Palliative Medicine. 2022. https://doi.org/10.21037/apm-21-3935
  7. FDA label (DailyMed). Winlevi (clascoterone) cream 1%. Sun Pharmaceutical Industries, Inc. 2025. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=1673a84b-7f5c-47ab-a99c-1e3db21a6a09
  8. Alkhodaidi ST, Al Hawsawi KA, Alkhudaidi IT, Magzoub D, Abu-Zaid A. Efficacy and safety of topical clascoterone cream for treatment of acne vulgaris: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Dermatologic Therapy. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/dth.14609
  9. King S, Campbell J, Rowe R, et al. A systematic review to evaluate the efficacy of azelaic acid in the management of acne, rosacea, melasma and skin aging. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.15923
  10. Liu H, Yu H, Xia J, et al. Topical azelaic acid, salicylic acid, nicotinamide, sulphur, zinc and fruit acid (alpha-hydroxy acid) for acne. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd011368.pub2
  11. Reynolds RV, Yeung H, Cheng CE, et al. Guidelines of care for the management of acne vulgaris. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2023.12.017
  12. FDA label (DailyMed). PanOxyl Acne Clearing Spot Treatment (benzoyl peroxide 10%), Drug Facts. Crown Laboratories. 2026. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=507150a0-9c20-4a2e-e063-6394a90ab9c7
  13. FDA label (DailyMed). Cleocin T (clindamycin phosphate) topical solution, gel and lotion. 2025. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=4a3901a4-194f-4a15-9c85-3d0982afcf31
  14. FDA label (DailyMed). Azelex (azelaic acid) cream 20%. Almirall, LLC. 2026. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=ebdfcaf7-b5d6-47e1-be87-ccaba4b97e75
  15. Kucera K, Zenzola N, Hudspeth A, et al. Evaluation of Benzene Presence and Formation in Benzoyl Peroxide Drug Products. Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jid.2024.09.009
  16. Czyz S, Yang K, Jafarian F. Benzoyl peroxide in the treatment of acne: are there potential health concerns? Frontiers in Pediatrics. 2025. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2025.1599491
  17. FDA label (DailyMed). Erythromycin topical solution USP 2%. Padagis Israel Pharmaceuticals Ltd. 2025. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=40edf1bd-42bb-4662-aff6-01fcc133c05d
  18. Zhu C, Wei B, Li Y, Wang C. Antibiotic resistance rates in Cutibacterium acnes isolated from patients with acne vulgaris: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2025. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2025.1565111
  19. Beig M, Shirazi O, Ebrahimi E, et al. Prevalence of antibiotic-resistant Cutibacterium acnes (formerly Propionibacterium acnes) isolates, a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Global Antimicrobial Resistance. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgar.2024.07.005

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