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Research · Medication

Topical NSAIDs

Pooled trials found diclofenac and ketoprofen gels eased knee osteoarthritis pain beyond the same gel without the drug, for about 1 in 7 to 10 users, and about as much as NSAID pills. Gels also helped sprains and strains. Skin reactions were the main side effect. Stomach effects did not rise, though labels carry the NSAID boxed warning.

Add to Bio HackChecked 2026-11-14
Status
In the US, diclofenac sodium 1% gel (Voltaren Arthritis Pain and store brands) is sold over the counter for arthritis pain in the hand, wrist, elbow, foot, ankle and knee. The diclofenac epolamine 1.3% patch (Flector) is a prescription drug, FDA-approved for acute pain from minor strains, sprains and bruises in people 6 and older. Diclofenac sodium 2% topical solution is a prescription drug for knee osteoarthritis pain. No FDA label for a topical ketoprofen or ibuprofen gel was located. The trials of those gels were run outside the US.
Also called
diclofenac gel, diclofenac sodium 1% gel, Voltaren Arthritis Pain, Voltaren Gel, diclofenac patch, diclofenac epolamine, Flector, diclofenac topical solution, Pennsaid, topical ketoprofen, ketoprofen gel, topical ibuprofen, ibuprofen gel, NSAID gel, anti-inflammatory gel, pain relief gel
Taken for
arthritis pain, knee pain, hand pain, joint pain, sprains, strains, bruises, sports injuries, muscle soreness after exercise, a safer alternative to NSAID pills

Strong several reviews agree · Moderate one review or consistent trials · Limited one or a few small studies · Untested no study in people, listed with what it rests on

Shown to help2

Reported risks9

What people take it for, and what was found

Shown to help2

StrongVery common

Knee and hand osteoarthritis pain

Shown to ease knee osteoarthritis pain more than the same gel without the drug, with about 1 in 7 to 10 more people getting much less pain.

Compared with the carrier, the same gel, cream or patch without the NSAID [1][2][3]; a vehicle gel without diclofenac [4]

The numbers and sources
How common
Very common: more than 1 in 10 people.
Effect
In trials lasting 6 to 12 weeks, about 60% of people on topical diclofenac or ketoprofen had much reduced pain. Around half had the same success on the carrier alone. The number needed to treat for clinical success was 9.8 (95% CI 7.1 to 16) for diclofenac in 6 trials with 2,343 people and 6.9 (95% CI 5.4 to 9.3) for ketoprofen in 4 trials with 2,573 people. Other topical NSAIDs had too few trials to analyze [1]. A network meta-analysis found topical NSAIDs eased osteoarthritis pain more than placebo (SMD -0.30, 95% CI -0.40 to -0.20) and improved function (SMD -0.35, 95% CI -0.45 to -0.24), with the largest pain effect for diclofenac patches (SMD -0.81, 95% CI -1.12 to -0.52) [2]. A third review found a moderate effect on knee pain (SMD 0.365, 95% CI 0.240 to 0.490) and function (SMD 0.354, 95% CI 0.268 to 0.493) [3]. In the label trials of prescription diclofenac 1% gel, knee pain on the WOMAC scale at week 12 was 28 against 37 on vehicle (difference 7, 95% CI 1 to 12), and hand pain at week 4 was 43 against 50 on a 100-point scale (difference 7, 95% CI 2 to 12) [4].
Population
39 trials with 10,631 adults, all with osteoarthritis and mostly of the knee [1]; 36 trials with 7,900 people with osteoarthritis [2]; 18 trials in knee osteoarthritis, two thirds of diclofenac [3]; 246 people with knee osteoarthritis and 385 with hand osteoarthritis [4].
Sources
[1], [2], [3], [4]
Caveats
The carrier itself gave pain relief to about half of people, about twice the response seen with placebo pills, so part of the benefit comes from rubbing in a gel [1]. The Cochrane review found no evidence for chronic pain conditions other than osteoarthritis, such as back pain, and up to 6,000 participants' data from unpublished trials were unavailable [1]. The effect sizes are small to moderate.
Moderate

Sprains, strains and overuse injuries

Shown to ease pain from sprains, strains and overuse injuries more than placebo gels, most for diclofenac, ibuprofen and ketoprofen gels and some diclofenac patches.

Compared with a matching topical placebo [5]; an identical patch without diclofenac [6]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Gels, sprays and creams of diclofenac, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, piroxicam and indomethacin gave more people at least 50% pain relief than matching placebo. Benzydamine did not. Numbers needed to treat were 1.8 (95% CI 1.5 to 2.1) for diclofenac as Emulgel, 3.2 (95% CI 2.6 to 4.2) for diclofenac plasters other than Flector, 2.5 (95% CI 2.0 to 3.4) for ketoprofen gel and 3.9 (95% CI 2.7 to 6.7) for ibuprofen gel. Other drug and formulation pairs had numbers needed to treat above 4. There were too few data to compare topical NSAIDs with each other or with the same drug by mouth [5]. For the Flector patch, the label reports greater pain reduction than the identical patch without diclofenac in 2 of 4 trials in minor strains, sprains and contusions [6].
Population
61 trials, with 5,311 people on a topical NSAID, 3,470 on placebo and 220 on an oral NSAID, with sprains, strains or overuse injuries [5]; about 600 people treated with Flector for up to two weeks [6].
Sources
[5], [6]
Caveats
About 5,900 participants' efficacy data from registered trials were unavailable [5]. The US over-the-counter diclofenac 1% gel is labeled not for strains, sprains, bruises or sports injuries and states it has not been shown to work for them [7]. Emulgel is a different formulation [5].

Not shown to help2

Strong

Topical against oral NSAIDs for osteoarthritis

Not shown to differ from NSAID pills in easing osteoarthritis pain or improving function, in pooled trials that compared the two directly or through a network.

Compared with oral NSAIDs [8][9][1]; acetaminophen [9]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Across 8 trials comparing topical with oral NSAIDs directly, WOMAC pain did not differ (SMD 0.07, 95% CI -0.02 to 0.17) [8]. In a network of 122 trials, topical NSAIDs did not differ from oral NSAIDs for function (SMD 0.03, 95% CrI -0.16 to 0.22) and improved function more than acetaminophen (SMD -0.29, 95% CrI -0.52 to -0.06) [9]. The Cochrane review found few direct comparisons, which showed similar efficacy on low-quality evidence [1].
Population
8 trials with 2,096 people with osteoarthritis [8]; 122 trials with 47,113 people with knee osteoarthritis [9]; trials within 39 studies of osteoarthritis [1].
Sources
[8], [9], [1]
Caveats
Most direct comparisons used diclofenac. The side effect differences between routes are in the risk blocks below.
Limited

Muscle soreness after exercise

One trial found ibuprofen gel did not lower muscle soreness after an unaccustomed gym workout compared with a placebo gel.

Compared with a placebo gel [10]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Soreness ratings over 108 hours after elbow and knee flexor exercise did not differ between ibuprofen gel and placebo, applied from 36 hours after exercise. Results did not differ by sex or age group [10].
Population
106 adults, each tested with both treatments on opposite limbs 3 weeks apart [10].
Sources
[10]
Caveats
One crossover trial, with the gel started 36 hours after exercise. No trial of diclofenac gel for exercise soreness was sourced.

Doses studied

The over-the-counter diclofenac 1% gel label directs 4 g to each foot, ankle or knee, or 2 g to each hand, wrist or elbow, four times a day, on no more than 2 body areas at once and for up to 21 days [7]. The prescription label trials used 4 g four times a day on one knee (16 g a day) and 2 g per hand four times a day on both hands [4]. The Flector patch is one 1.3% patch on the most painful area twice a day [6]. Diclofenac sodium 2% solution is labeled at 40 mg (2 pumps) per knee twice a day [13]. How much reaches the blood: with 4 g of 1% gel four times a day on one knee, average systemic exposure was about 6% of that from 50 mg of oral diclofenac three times a day, and peak blood level was 0.6% of the oral peak [4]. After four days of Flector, exposure and peak levels were under 1% of a single 50 mg oral tablet, with peak plasma levels of 1.3 to 8.8 ng/mL [6]. With 2% solution at 40 mg per knee twice a day, mean peak plasma level was 25.24 ng/mL at steady state [13].

Risks

Reported risks8

StrongCommon

Skin reactions where it is applied

Shown to cause more mild skin reactions than the same gel without the drug, in about 7% on diclofenac 1% gel against 2% on vehicle.

The numbers and sources
How common
Common: between 1 in 100 and 1 in 10 people.
Effect
In the prescription diclofenac 1% gel trials, 7% on the gel and 2% on vehicle had an application site reaction, and dermatitis occurred in 4% against under 1%. In a 1-year open study at up to 32 g a day, application site dermatitis occurred in 11% [4]. With the Flector patch, application site conditions occurred in 11% against 12% on the identical drug-free patch [6]. With diclofenac 1.5% solution, dry skin occurred in 32% against 5% on vehicle and contact dermatitis in 9% against 2% [13]. In osteoarthritis trials, local reactions, mostly mild, rose with topical diclofenac against carrier or oral NSAIDs but not with topical ketoprofen [1]. In acute injury trials, local skin reactions did not differ from placebo [5]. Across knee pain trials, skin disorders made up 56% of categorized side effects with topical NSAIDs [12].
Population
913 people on gel and 876 on vehicle in short-term osteoarthritis trials [4]; 572 on Flector and 564 on drug-free patch [6]; 911 on 1.5% solution and 332 on vehicle [13]; 39 trials in osteoarthritis [1]; 61 trials in acute injuries [5]; 137 trials with 13,634 people with chronic knee pain [12].
Sources
[4], [6], [13], [1], [5], [12]
Caveats
Rates depend on the product. Solutions containing dimethyl sulfoxide and patches had more side effects than other carriers in one review [3].
ModerateCommon

Side effects overall, against placebo and against NSAID pills

Shown to raise total side effects and withdrawals slightly over placebo, while side effects occurred in about 8% on topical NSAIDs against 25% on oral NSAIDs.

The numbers and sources
How common
Common: between 1 in 100 and 1 in 10 people.
Effect
Against placebo, topical NSAIDs raised total side effects (OR 1.16, 95% CI 1.04 to 1.29) and withdrawals due to side effects (OR 1.49, 95% CI 1.15 to 1.92), driven by skin reactions with diclofenac [11]. Across knee pain trials, the incidence of all reported side effects was 7.8% (95% CI 4.5 to 13.5) with topical NSAIDs and 25.1% (95% CI 20.8 to 30.4) with oral NSAIDs. Gut disorders made up 64.5% of categorized side effects with oral NSAIDs [12]. Serious side effects were infrequent and did not differ from carrier [1].
Population
19 placebo-controlled trials in osteoarthritis [11]; 137 trials with 13,634 people with chronic knee pain [12]; 39 trials in osteoarthritis [1].
Sources
[11], [12], [1]
Caveats
The incidence comparison is across trials rather than within them, and its certainty was low or very low [12]. Serious side effects were too rare to estimate [12].
LimitedCommon

Using a topical and an oral NSAID together

The label reports more rectal bleeding, 3% against under 1%, and more abnormal kidney tests when diclofenac solution was added to oral diclofenac.

The numbers and sources
How common
Common: between 1 in 100 and 1 in 10 people.
Effect
In one controlled trial, diclofenac 1.5% solution plus oral diclofenac, compared with oral diclofenac alone, gave a higher rate of rectal hemorrhage (3% against under 1%) and more frequent abnormal creatinine (12% against 7%), urea (20% against 12%) and hemoglobin (13% against 9%), with no difference in liver enzymes. The labels advise against combining topical and oral NSAIDs unless benefit outweighs risk [13][6].
Population
People with osteoarthritis in one controlled trial, as reported on the label [13].
Sources
[13], [6]
Caveats
One trial, reported only on the label, which does not give its size or say which way the abnormal tests moved.
LimitedHow often is not known

FDA boxed warning: heart attack, stroke and stomach bleeding

FDA states NSAIDs raise the risk of serious heart attack and stroke and of stomach and intestinal bleeding, ulcers and perforation, which can be fatal.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
The prescription Flector and diclofenac 2% solution labels carry the class boxed warning. It states NSAIDs cause an increased risk of serious cardiovascular thrombotic events, including heart attack and stroke, which may occur early and rise with duration of use, and of serious bleeding, ulceration and perforation of the stomach or intestines. Older people and those with past ulcers or bleeding are at greater risk. The labels contraindicate use around coronary artery bypass surgery [6][13]. The over-the-counter gel carries a heart attack and stroke warning and a stomach bleeding warning, which it says is more likely at 60 or older, with past ulcers, with blood thinners or steroids, with other NSAIDs, with 3 or more drinks a day, or with more or longer use than directed [7].
Population
Labeling statement for the NSAID class [6][13][7].
Sources
[6], [13], [7]
Caveats
The boxed warning is written for the NSAID class and rests on oral NSAID data. Blood levels from topical use are a small fraction of oral levels [4][6]. The studies of these outcomes in topical users are in the blocks below.
LimitedHow often is not known

Interactions with blood thinners, antidepressants and blood pressure drugs

The label warns diclofenac raises bleeding with blood thinners and SSRIs, weakens some blood pressure drugs and diuretics, and raises lithium levels.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
The Flector label lists warfarin and other anticoagulants, antiplatelet drugs such as aspirin, and SSRIs and SNRIs as raising bleeding risk with diclofenac. It states NSAIDs may weaken the blood pressure effect of ACE inhibitors, ARBs and beta-blockers, may worsen kidney function with ACE inhibitors or ARBs in older, dehydrated or kidney-impaired people, and reduce the effect of loop and thiazide diuretics. It lists raised lithium and digoxin levels [6]. The over-the-counter label asks people taking a diuretic or any other drug to ask before use [7].
Population
Labeling statement drawn from NSAID class data [6].
Sources
[6], [7]
Caveats
These interactions were described for NSAIDs as a class. No interaction trial specific to topical diclofenac was sourced.
LimitedHow often is not known

Liver injury

The label warns diclofenac can damage the liver, especially if more is applied, for longer than directed, or with other diclofenac products.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
The over-the-counter label carries a liver warning: liver damage may occur when more is applied, for longer than directed, or with other drugs containing diclofenac [7]. The Flector label reports postmarketing cases of severe liver reactions with diclofenac, including liver necrosis, jaundice, fulminant hepatitis and liver failure, some fatal or leading to transplant [6].
Population
Labeling statement [7]; postmarketing reports with diclofenac [6].
Sources
[7], [6]
Caveats
The postmarketing reports are for diclofenac in general, mostly oral, and give no rate for topical use [6].
LimitedStudied in pregnancyHow often is not known

Use in pregnancy

The label warns NSAIDs from about 20 weeks of pregnancy can cause low amniotic fluid and fetal kidney problems, and from 30 weeks early closure of a fetal vessel.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
The Flector label states NSAID use from about 20 weeks of pregnancy has been linked to fetal kidney dysfunction leading to low amniotic fluid and, in some cases, newborn kidney impairment, and use from about 30 weeks raises the risk of premature closure of the fetal ductus arteriosus. It advises limiting dose and duration between 20 and 30 weeks and avoiding use from about 30 weeks [6]. The over-the-counter label calls it especially important not to use diclofenac at 20 weeks or later unless a doctor directs it [7].
Population
Labeling statement for NSAIDs [6][7].
Sources
[6], [7]
Caveats
The label rests on NSAID class data, not on studies of topical diclofenac in pregnancy.
LimitedHow often is not known

Sunlight-triggered skin allergy with topical ketoprofen

Case reports: one clinic diagnosed 94 people with sunlight-triggered skin allergy to topical ketoprofen over 20 years, many also allergic to fragrance ingredients.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
Of 94 people with photocontact allergy to topical ketoprofen, contact allergy to fragrance mix I was found in 42.3% and to Myroxylon pereirae in 47.9%, against 6.6% each in controls patch tested over the same years [17].
Population
94 patients diagnosed from 1999 to 2018 at one Swedish clinic, against about 12,800 patch-tested controls [17].
Sources
[17]
Caveats
A clinic series with no count of how many people used ketoprofen, so it gives no rate.

Mixed results1

ModerateHow often is not known

Kidney effects

Mixed results: topical diclofenac caused little to no change in creatinine in general populations, but one cohort of people at kidney risk linked topical NSAIDs to more kidney injury.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
In general populations, topical diclofenac produced little to no change in serum creatinine or creatinine clearance and had smaller kidney effects than oral diclofenac, on high-certainty evidence. In populations at raised kidney risk, one adjusted cohort found more acute kidney injury among topical NSAID users, mostly of agents other than diclofenac, and less than among users of oral NSAIDs [15].
Population
18 studies with more than 500,000 participants [15].
Sources
[15]
Caveats
The review did not pool results. No study measured early kidney injury markers, and the at-risk evidence rests mostly on non-diclofenac exposure [15].

Checked, no increase found2

Strong

Stomach and gut side effects and bleeding

Not shown to raise stomach side effects over placebo, and linked to fewer stomach side effects and bleeds than NSAID pills or acetaminophen.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
Gastrointestinal disorders did not differ between topical NSAIDs and placebo (OR 0.96, 95% CI 0.73 to 1.27) [11]. No serious gastrointestinal events were seen in trials or in the general population studies of one network review [2]. In another, topical NSAIDs had lower risk of gut side effects than oral NSAIDs (RR 0.46, 95% CrI 0.34 to 0.61) and acetaminophen (RR 0.52, 95% CrI 0.35 to 0.76) in trials. In real-world data, gastrointestinal bleeding was lower than with acetaminophen (HR 0.53, 95% CI 0.41 to 0.69) [9]. In a case-control study, topical NSAIDs were not linked to hospital admission for upper gut bleeding or perforation after adjusting for oral NSAIDs and ulcer drugs (OR 1.45, 95% CI 0.84 to 2.50, and 1.06, 95% CI 0.60 to 1.88, with two control groups) [14].
Population
19 trials in osteoarthritis [11]; 36 trials and 7 observational studies with 218,074 participants [2]; 122 trials and a matched cohort of 22,158 people per group [9]; 1,103 people admitted for upper gut bleeding or perforation and their controls [14].
Sources
[11], [2], [9], [14]
Caveats
Reporting of whole-body side effects in trials was poor [1]. The real-world comparisons are observational [9][14].
Limited

Heart attack and stroke measured in topical users

Linked to fewer heart and stroke events than NSAID pills or acetaminophen in two observational studies.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
In people with rheumatoid arthritis starting an NSAID, the crude rate of heart and stroke events was 1.87 per 100 person-years on topical NSAIDs and 2.14 on oral NSAIDs, and the weighted risk was 36% lower on topical (HR 0.64, 95% CI 0.43 to 0.95) [16]. In people with knee osteoarthritis, topical NSAID users had lower cardiovascular disease (HR 0.73, 95% CI 0.63 to 0.85) and all-cause mortality (HR 0.59, 95% CI 0.52 to 0.68) than acetaminophen users over one year [9].
Population
10,758 topical and 78,056 oral NSAID treatment episodes in Taiwan [16]; 22,158 matched people per group in a UK database [9].
Sources
[16], [9]
Caveats
Both are observational, and neither compared topical NSAIDs with no treatment. The network review authors said cardiovascular safety needs more study [2].

Claims tested and not found

  1. That a topical NSAID gel eases muscle soreness after a hard workout. Ibuprofen gel did not lower soreness compared with placebo gel after unaccustomed exercise [10].
  2. That topical NSAIDs carry the same stomach risk as NSAID pills. Stomach side effects did not differ from placebo [11], were lower than with oral NSAIDs [9], and topical use was not linked to admission for upper gut bleeding after adjustment [14].

Sources

  1. Derry S, Conaghan P, Da Silva JA, Wiffen PJ, Moore RA. Topical NSAIDs for chronic musculoskeletal pain in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd007400.pub3
  2. Zeng C, Wei J, Persson MSM, et al. Relative efficacy and safety of topical non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for osteoarthritis: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials and observational studies. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-098043
  3. Wolff DG, Christophersen C, Brown SM, Mulcahey MK. Topical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Physician and Sportsmedicine. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913847.2021.1886573
  4. FDA label (DailyMed). Voltaren Gel (diclofenac sodium topical gel) 1%, prescription labeling. 2017. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=ea23fc47-3b7b-4fad-ae34-b6eb6913d957
  5. Derry S, Moore RA, Gaskell H, McIntyre M, Wiffen PJ. Topical NSAIDs for acute musculoskeletal pain in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd007402.pub3
  6. FDA label (DailyMed). Flector (diclofenac epolamine) topical system 1.3%. IBSA Pharma Inc. 2025. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=1f19a016-c4fc-43c5-9990-e5f2e2776a82
  7. FDA label (DailyMed). Voltaren Arthritis Pain (diclofenac sodium) gel 1%, Drug Facts. Haleon US Holdings LLC. 2025. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=30a94282-0892-442a-aa10-6525cbd4fe88
  8. Wang Y, Fan M, Wang H, et al. Relative safety and efficacy of topical and oral NSAIDs in the treatment of osteoarthritis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000030354
  9. Zeng C, Doherty M, Persson MSM, et al. Comparative efficacy and safety of acetaminophen, topical and oral non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for knee osteoarthritis: evidence from a network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials and real-world data. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2021.06.004
  10. Hyldahl RD, Keadle J, Rouzier PA, Pearl D, Clarkson PM. Effects of ibuprofen topical gel on muscle soreness. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2010. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e3181b95db2
  11. Honvo G, Leclercq V, Geerinck A, et al. Safety of Topical Non-steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Osteoarthritis: Outcomes of a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Drugs & Aging. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40266-019-00661-0
  12. Cromwijk HSG, Mentiplay BF, Kappaum JP, et al. Incidence of adverse events with topical and oral nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for chronic knee pain: a systematic review with meta-analysis and meta-regression. Pain Management. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1080/17581869.2026.2754352
  13. FDA label (DailyMed). Diclofenac sodium topical solution 2%, prescription labeling. Direct_Rx. 2026. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=223f0fb4-2006-c2dd-e063-6394a90a563a
  14. Evans JM, McMahon AD, McGilchrist MM, et al. Topical non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and admission to hospital for upper gastrointestinal bleeding and perforation: a record linkage case-control study. BMJ. 1995. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.311.6996.22
  15. Coșovanu EO, Coșovanu ET, Balan TA, et al. Renal Safety of Topical Diclofenac in Adults with Increased Renal Risk: A Systematic Review. Medicina. 2026. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina62081606
  16. Lin TC, Solomon DH, Tedeschi SK, Yoshida K, Kao Yang YH. Comparative Risk of Cardiovascular Outcomes Between Topical and Oral Nonselective NSAIDs in Taiwanese Patients With Rheumatoid Arthritis. Journal of the American Heart Association. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1161/jaha.117.006874
  17. Marmgren V, Mowitz M, Zimerson E, Hindsén M, Bruze M. Surprising results of patch testing with the baseline series in patients with photocontact allergy to ketoprofen. Contact Dermatitis. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1111/cod.14696

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