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Research · Medication

Nicotine replacement therapy

Across 133 trials, every form of nicotine replacement raised long-term quit rates by about half against placebo or no NRT, and a patch plus a fast-acting form raised them further. Varenicline and nicotine e-cigarettes helped more people quit. Side effects were mostly local irritation, nausea and sleep changes. Serious and heart events did not clearly rise.

Add to Bio HackChecked 2026-11-14
Status
In the US the nicotine patch, gum and lozenge are sold over the counter under FDA Drug Facts labels as stop smoking aids. The labels tell people under 18 to ask a doctor before use. The nicotine inhaler (Nicotrol Inhaler) and nicotine nasal spray (Nicotrol NS) are prescription drugs, labeled as aids to smoking cessation. In 2013 FDA concluded that label warnings on using OTC NRT with other nicotine products, or for longer than the labeled course, could be modified.
Also called
NRT, nicotine patch, NicoDerm CQ, Habitrol, nicotine gum, Nicorette gum, nicotine polacrilex, nicotine lozenge, Nicorette lozenge, Nicorette mini lozenge, nicotine inhaler, Nicotrol Inhaler, nicotine nasal spray, Nicotrol NS, combination NRT, quit smoking aids, stop smoking aid
Taken for
quitting smoking, cravings, nicotine withdrawal, cutting down before quitting, quitting in pregnancy, teens quitting, preventing weight gain after quitting, ulcerative colitis, Parkinson's disease, memory and focus

Strong several reviews agree · Moderate one review or consistent trials · Limited one or a few small studies · Untested no study in people, listed with what it rests on

Shown to help5

Reported risks10

What people take it for, and what was found

Shown to help5

Strong

Quitting smoking

Shown to raise long-term quit rates by about 55% against placebo or no NRT, about two to three extra quitters per 100, with every licensed form.

Compared with placebo or no NRT [1][2]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Any NRT raised abstinence at 6 months or more against control (RR 1.55, 95% CI 1.49 to 1.61, 133 trials, 64,640 participants, high quality). By form: gum RR 1.49 (56 trials), patch 1.64 (51 trials), tablets or lozenges 1.52 (8 trials), inhaler 1.90 (4 trials) and nasal spray 2.02 (4 trials). The effect was largely independent of how much other support people received [1]. A network meta-analysis of 319 trials found the patch (OR 1.37) and fast-acting NRT (OR 1.41) raised quit rates against control, about two and three extra quitters per 100 [2].
Population
Adults motivated to quit, typically smoking 15 or more cigarettes a day, in 133 randomized trials [1]; 157,179 adults in 319 randomized trials, pregnant people excluded [2].
Sources
[1], [2]
Caveats
Most trials were at high or unclear risk of bias, though restricting to low-risk trials did not change the result [1]. 118 trials in [2] reported pharmaceutical or tobacco industry funding.
Moderate

Using a patch and a fast-acting form together

Shown to raise long-term quit rates about 27% more than one form of NRT alone, in trials of a patch plus gum, lozenge, inhaler or spray.

Compared with a single form of NRT [3]; control, by an additive network estimate [2]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Combination NRT (a patch plus a fast-acting form) raised long-term abstinence against a single form (RR 1.27, 95% CI 1.17 to 1.37, I2 12%, 16 studies, 12,169 participants, high certainty) [3]. A calculated additive estimate against control was OR 1.93 (95% CrI 1.61 to 2.34) [2].
Population
12,169 adults in 16 randomized trials [3]; 319 randomized trials in adults [2].
Sources
[3], [2]
Caveats
The network estimate for combination NRT was calculated from its parts, not measured directly, and its certainty was not rated [2].
Moderate

Which form, which dose, and starting before quit day

Shown that gum or lozenge gave quit rates similar to the patch. Higher-dose gum and 21 mg patches outperformed lower doses, and starting before quit day helped modestly.

Compared with another form of NRT, a lower dose, or starting on quit day [3]

The numbers and sources
Effect
A fast-acting form and the patch gave similar long-term quit rates (RR 0.90, 95% CI 0.77 to 1.05, 8 studies, 3,319 participants, high certainty). 21 mg patches outperformed 14 mg (RR 1.48, 1 study), and 42 or 44 mg patches did not differ from 21 or 22 mg (RR 1.09). The authors report high-certainty evidence for 4 mg over 2 mg gum. Starting NRT before quit day while still smoking raised abstinence (RR 1.25, 95% CI 1.08 to 1.44, 9 studies, 4,395 participants, moderate certainty). No clear effect of patch duration was found [3].
Population
43,327 participants in 68 randomized trials comparing one way of using NRT with another [3].
Sources
[3]
Caveats
28 of 68 trials were at high risk of bias, and the preloading result weakened when they were removed [3]. The abstract does not give the gum dose estimate.
Moderate

Staying quit for years

Shown to keep its advantage over placebo for 2 to 8 years, though the extra share of ex-smokers fell from about 11 to about 7 per 100 through relapse.

Compared with placebo [4]

The numbers and sources
Effect
At final follow-up of 2 to 8 years, abstinence favored NRT over placebo (OR 1.99, 95% CI 1.50 to 2.64). Relapse between 12 months and final follow-up was 30.0% and did not differ between NRT and placebo groups. The extra ex-smokers attributable to NRT fell from 10.7 per 100 at one year to 7.2 per 100 at an average 4.3 years [4].
Population
4,792 participants in 12 placebo-controlled trials with follow-up beyond one year [4].
Sources
[4]
Caveats
One review, published in 2006 [4].
ModerateVery common

Ulcerative colitis

Shown to raise remission of active ulcerative colitis against placebo over 4 to 6 weeks, 27% against 13%. It did not differ from prednisone or mesalamine.

Compared with placebo [12]; prednisone or mesalamine [12]

The numbers and sources
How common
Very common: more than 1 in 10 people.
Effect
After 4 to 6 weeks, 19 of 71 people on a nicotine patch and 9 of 70 on placebo were in clinical remission (OR 2.56, 95% CI 1.02 to 6.45). Against prednisone or mesalamine, remission was 33 of 66 on nicotine and 34 of 63 on standard therapy (OR 0.77, 95% CI 0.37 to 1.60). People on nicotine were more likely to stop for adverse events (OR 5.82) [12].
Population
People with active mild to moderate ulcerative colitis in 5 randomized trials, 137 on nicotine 15 to 25 mg a day [12].
Sources
[12]
Caveats
The placebo comparison rests on 2 small trials. The review dates from 2004 [12]. Nicotine is not FDA approved for this use.

Mixed results4

Strong

Against varenicline, bupropion and e-cigarettes

Mixed results: varenicline and nicotine e-cigarettes helped more people quit than single-form NRT. Combination NRT and varenicline did not clearly differ, and the patch matched bupropion.

Compared with varenicline [5][6][2]; bupropion [5][2]; nicotine e-cigarettes [7][2]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Varenicline helped more people quit than a single form of NRT (RR 1.25, 95% CI 1.14 to 1.37, 11 studies, 7,572 participants), and did not clearly differ from dual-form NRT (RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.87 to 1.20, 5 studies) [6]. In the EAGLES trial, varenicline beat the 21 mg patch (OR 1.68, 95% CI 1.46 to 1.93), while the patch (OR 2.15) and bupropion (OR 2.07) each beat placebo by similar margins [5]. Nicotine e-cigarettes raised quit rates against NRT (RR 1.61, 95% CI 1.23 to 2.12, 11 studies, 4,114 participants, high certainty), about four more quitters per 100 [7]. The network meta-analysis placed e-cigarettes (OR 2.37), varenicline (OR 2.33) and cytisine above the patch (OR 1.37) and fast-acting NRT (OR 1.41) [2].
Population
45,049 people in 75 trials [6]; 8,144 smokers with and without psychiatric disorders in 16 countries [5]; 29,861 participants in 80 trials [7]; 319 trials in adults [2].
Sources
[6], [5], [7], [2]
Caveats
EAGLES was funded by Pfizer and GlaxoSmithKline [5]. Heterogeneity for the e-cigarette comparison was 55% [7].
ModerateStudied in pregnancy

Quitting during pregnancy

Mixed results: NRT raised quitting in later pregnancy across all trials, but in placebo-controlled trials alone the effect was not significant.

Compared with placebo [8]; behavioral support only [8]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Across 9 trials, NRT raised abstinence in later pregnancy (RR 1.37, 95% CI 1.08 to 1.74, 2,336 women, low certainty). In the 6 placebo-controlled trials the effect was RR 1.21 (95% CI 0.95 to 1.55), and in 3 non-placebo trials RR 8.55. Adherence to NRT was generally low [8].
Population
2,336 pregnant women who smoked, in 9 randomized trials of NRT with matched behavioral support [8].
Sources
[8]
Caveats
Low-certainty evidence. The authors note the effect was not evident once potentially biased non-placebo trials were set aside [8].
Moderate

Weight gain after quitting

Shown to cut weight gain slightly, about half a kilogram, by the end of treatment in people who quit. At 12 months the difference was not significant.

Compared with placebo or no NRT [11]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Among people abstinent from smoking, NRT lowered weight gain at the end of treatment (MD -0.52 kg, 95% CI -0.99 to -0.05, 21 studies, 2,784 participants, I2 81%, moderate certainty). At 12 months the difference was -0.37 kg (95% CI -0.86 to 0.11, 17 studies, 1,463 participants) [11].
Population
People who stopped smoking in NRT trials reporting weight [11].
Sources
[11]
Caveats
Weight was measured only in people who stayed abstinent. The authors found no intervention with moderate certainty of a useful long-term effect on weight [11].
Limited

Memory and attention in mild cognitive impairment

One small trial found a 15 mg nicotine patch improved attention and memory tests over 6 months in nonsmokers with mild cognitive impairment, but not clinician-rated global change.

Compared with placebo patch [13]

The numbers and sources
Effect
The primary attention test (Connors Continuous Performance Test) improved on nicotine against placebo, as did secondary measures of attention, memory and psychomotor speed. Clinician-rated global improvement did not differ [13].
Population
74 nonsmokers with amnestic mild cognitive impairment, 67 completing [13].
Sources
[13]
Caveats
A pilot trial. The authors say larger studies are needed to know if the changes matter clinically [13].

Not shown to help2

Moderate

Quitting in teenagers and young people

Not shown to raise long-term quitting in smokers under 20. One review found a short-term gain at 4 weeks that did not last.

Compared with placebo or no medication [9][10]

The numbers and sources
Effect
In 3 trials of NRT in young people, quitting did not clearly differ from control (RR 1.11, 95% CI 0.48 to 2.58) [9]. Pooling 9 trials of quit-smoking medicines in adolescents, abstinence rose overall (RR 1.62, 95% CI 1.08 to 2.44) and at 4 weeks (RR 1.87), but not significantly at 8 to 52 weeks [10].
Population
Regular smokers under 20 in randomized trials [9]; 1,188 smokers aged 12 to 20 in 9 trials [10].
Sources
[9], [10]
Caveats
Few small trials and wide confidence intervals [9]. [10] pooled NRT with other medicines.
Moderate

Parkinson's disease

Not shown to improve movement symptoms, daily functioning, cognition or quality of life in Parkinson's disease, short term or over 6 months or more.

Compared with placebo [14]

The numbers and sources
Effect
Motor outcomes did not differ from control in the short term (SMD -0.45, 95% CI -1.61 to 0.71) or at 6 months or more (SMD 0.17, 95% CI -0.44 to 0.79). Short-term daily functioning, cognition and quality of life also did not improve [14].
Population
346 people with Parkinson's disease in 5 randomized trials [14].
Sources
[14]
Caveats
Heterogeneity between trials was considerable [14].

Doses studied

The over-the-counter patch label directs 21 mg a day for weeks 1 to 6, 14 mg for weeks 7 to 8 and 7 mg for weeks 9 to 10 for people smoking more than 10 cigarettes a day, and starting at 14 mg for 10 or fewer [15]. The gum label uses 4 mg for people whose first cigarette comes within 30 minutes of waking and 2 mg otherwise, one piece every 1 to 2 hours in weeks 1 to 6, tapering over 12 weeks, at most 24 pieces a day [16]. The lozenge label uses the same 2 or 4 mg split, at least 9 a day for the first 6 weeks, at most 20 a day, over 12 weeks [17]. The prescription nasal spray delivers 1 mg per dose (2 sprays), starting at 1 or 2 doses an hour, up to 40 mg a day [18]. Inhaler trials used 4 to 20 cartridges a day, each delivering about 4 mg [19]. EAGLES used a 21 mg patch with taper for 12 weeks [5]. The ulcerative colitis trials used 15 to 25 mg a day [12], and the cognitive impairment trial 15 mg a day [13].

Risks

Reported risks9

ModerateVery common

Mouth and throat irritation, hiccups and cough with gum, lozenge and inhaler

Shown to raise mouth and throat soreness, mouth ulcers, hiccups and cough with oral forms. On the inhaler, 40% had mouth and throat irritation against 18% on placebo.

The numbers and sources
How common
Very common: more than 1 in 10 people.
Effect
Oral NRT raised mouth and throat soreness (OR 1.87, 95% CI 1.36 to 2.57), mouth ulcers (OR 1.49), hiccups (OR 7.68) and coughing (OR 2.89) against control [20]. In the inhaler trials, local mouth and throat irritation occurred in 40% on the inhaler and 18% on placebo [19].
Population
Randomized trials of oral NRT [20]; inhaler label trials [19].
Sources
[20], [19]
Caveats
The inhaler label available is a 2011 repackager copy [19].
LimitedVery common

Nasal irritation with the nasal spray

The label reports nasal irritation in 94% of spray users in the first 2 days and 81% after 3 weeks. A pepper-containing placebo also caused irritation.

The numbers and sources
How common
Very common: more than 1 in 10 people.
Effect
Nasal irritation was reported by 94% in the first 2 days, mostly moderate or severe, and by 81% after 3 weeks, mostly moderate or mild. Runny nose, throat irritation, watering eyes, sneezing and cough were common on both active and placebo sprays. Nasal congestion, transient nosebleeds, eye irritation and changes in smell were somewhat more common on active spray [18].
Population
Participants in the nasal spray label trials, 730 smokers in 3 studies [18].
Sources
[18]
Caveats
The label does not give the placebo share for nasal irritation [18].
ModerateVery common

Nausea and stomach upset

Shown to raise nausea, vomiting and stomach complaints against control. On the inhaler, dyspepsia occurred in 18% against 9% on placebo.

The numbers and sources
How common
Very common: more than 1 in 10 people.
Effect
NRT raised nausea and vomiting (OR 1.67, 95% CI 1.37 to 2.04) and gastrointestinal complaints (OR 1.54, 95% CI 1.25 to 1.89) against control [20]. Dyspepsia occurred in 18% on the inhaler and 9% on placebo [19]. The patch label lists nausea, vomiting, dizziness, weakness and rapid heartbeat as signs of nicotine overdose [15].
Population
Randomized trials against inert control [20]; inhaler label trials [19].
Sources
[20], [19], [15]
Caveats
Rates differ by form.
ModerateVery common

Insomnia and vivid dreams

Shown to raise insomnia against control. In EAGLES, abnormal dreams were the most frequent side effect on the patch, at 12%.

The numbers and sources
How common
Very common: more than 1 in 10 people.
Effect
NRT raised insomnia against control (OR 1.42, 95% CI 1.21 to 1.66) [20]. Abnormal dreams were the most frequent adverse event on the nicotine patch, in 251 of 2,022 people (12%) [5]. The patch label says to remove the patch at bedtime if vivid dreams or other sleep problems occur [15].
Population
Randomized trials against inert control [20]; 2,022 people on the 21 mg patch [5].
Sources
[20], [5], [15]
Caveats
The EAGLES abstract does not give the placebo rate of abnormal dreams [5].
LimitedVery common

Dependence and long-term use

The spray label reports feelings of dependence in 32% of active users against 13% on placebo. FDA's 2013 review found no safety risks from NRT use beyond 12 weeks.

The numbers and sources
How common
Very common: more than 1 in 10 people.
Effect
Feelings of dependency were reported by 32% of nasal spray users and 13% of placebo spray users. 15% to 20% used the spray longer than the label directs and 5% at higher doses, and of 64 people abstinent at a year, 23 were still using it. The label states the spray's dependence potential lies between other NRT and cigarettes [18]. FDA reviewed published studies of NRT use over periods longer than 12 weeks and stated it had not identified safety risks, citing the Lung Health Study, where over 1,000 people still used nicotine gum after a year [22].
Population
Nasal spray label trials [18]; studies reviewed by FDA [22].
Sources
[18], [22]
Caveats
The dependence rate is for the nasal spray. The labels give no rate for the patch, gum or lozenge.
ModerateHow often is not known

Skin irritation from the patch

Shown to raise skin irritation about 2.8 times against control in patch trials. The label says to stop and ask a doctor if redness lasts over four days.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
Pooled trial evidence for the patch found more skin irritation than control (OR 2.80, 95% CI 2.28 to 3.24) [20]. The Cochrane review lists skin irritation from patches among product-related adverse events [1]. The label says to ask a doctor before use with an adhesive allergy or skin problems [15].
Population
32,185 participants in 92 randomized trials against inert control [20].
Sources
[20], [1], [15]
Caveats
The abstracts give odds ratios, not the share of people affected [20].
StrongHow often is not known

Palpitations, chest pain and heart events

Shown to raise palpitations and chest pain about twofold against control, rare in both groups. Major cardiovascular events did not significantly rise.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
Chest pain or palpitations were more common on NRT than control (OR 1.88, 95% CI 1.37 to 2.57, 15 trials, 11,074 participants), and rare in both groups [1]. A second review found OR 2.06 (95% CI 1.51 to 2.82) [20]. In a network meta-analysis of 21 NRT trials, all cardiovascular events rose (RR 2.29, 95% CI 1.39 to 3.82), driven mostly by less serious events, while major adverse cardiovascular events did not significantly differ (RR 1.95, 95% CI 0.26 to 4.30) [21]. The patch label says to ask a doctor first with heart disease, recent heart attack, irregular heartbeat or uncontrolled high blood pressure [15].
Population
11,074 participants in 15 trials [1]; 92 randomized trials [20]; 63 randomized trials of quit-smoking drugs [21].
Sources
[1], [20], [21], [15]
Caveats
The confidence interval for major events was wide [21].
LimitedHow often is not known

Poisoning in children and pets

The labels warn that even used patches hold enough nicotine to poison children and pets. They give no rate.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
The patch label states used patches have enough nicotine to poison children and pets, and to get medical help or call a Poison Control Center if one is swallowed [15]. The inhaler label states amounts tolerated by adult smokers can cause poisoning and could be fatal in children [19].
Population
Labeling statements [15][19].
Sources
[15], [19]
Caveats
No case counts are given in these labels.
LimitedHow often is not known

Interactions with antidepressant and asthma medicines

The label says to ask a doctor or pharmacist before use with a prescription medicine for depression or asthma, because its dose may need adjusting.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
The patch label lists taking a prescription medicine for depression or asthma, and using a non-nicotine stop smoking drug, as reasons to ask a doctor or pharmacist first, and states the prescription dose may need to be adjusted [15].
Population
Labeling statement [15].
Sources
[15]
Caveats
The label names classes, not specific drugs, and gives no rate.

Mixed results1

ModerateStudied in pregnancyHow often is not known

Pregnancy

Not shown to change birth outcomes against control in trials. A large cohort found overall birth defects similar to smokers, with one signal for respiratory defects.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
In 9 trials, miscarriage, stillbirth, premature birth, birthweight, neonatal intensive care, cesarean section, congenital abnormalities and neonatal death did not differ between NRT and control. Headache, nausea and local reactions were reported [8]. In 192,498 UK children, the adjusted odds of major congenital anomalies were 1.12 (99% CI 0.84 to 1.48) after NRT against nonsmokers and 1.07 against smokers. Respiratory anomalies were higher (OR 4.65, 99% CI 1.76 to 12.25, 10 exposed cases), an absolute difference of 3 per 1,000 births [23]. The patch label says to use it in pregnancy only on a health care provider's advice, and that the risks to the child are not fully known [15].
Population
2,336 pregnant women in 9 trials [8]; 192,498 children with linked mother-child records [23].
Sources
[8], [23], [15]
Caveats
Trial evidence was low certainty [8]. Women prescribed NRT had more illness, which may explain some differences [23].

Checked, no increase found3

Moderate

Serious adverse events

Not shown to raise serious adverse events against placebo or no medication, with about 3% having one across treatments.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
Serious adverse events averaged 3% across treatments, and low-certainty evidence showed no clear difference between NRT and placebo or no medication [2]. Serious adverse events were extremely rare in the NRT trials [1].
Population
Adults in 319 randomized trials [2]; NRT trials [1].
Sources
[2], [1]
Caveats
Serious events were sparse and variably reported [2].
Moderate

Depression, anxiety and other psychiatric effects

Not shown to raise moderate or severe psychiatric adverse events against placebo, in people with or without psychiatric disorders.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
In the non-psychiatric cohort, moderate and severe neuropsychiatric adverse events occurred in 2.5% on the patch and 2.4% on placebo. In the psychiatric cohort, they occurred in 5.2% on the patch and 4.9% on placebo [5]. Pooled trials found no significant rise in anxiety or depressive symptoms with NRT [20].
Population
8,058 smokers in the EAGLES safety analysis [5]; randomized trials against inert control [20].
Sources
[5], [20]
Caveats
EAGLES was industry funded [5].
Limited

Using NRT while still smoking or with a second nicotine product

FDA concluded in 2013 that label warnings against using OTC NRT with cigarettes or other nicotine products were no longer needed in their old form.

The numbers and sources
How common
How often is not known: the sources give no rate.
Effect
FDA reviewed the evidence and concluded that statements on concomitant use with other nicotine-containing products and on duration of use could be modified, stating they were "no longer believed to be necessary in their current form to ensure the safe and effective use" of OTC NRT. FDA took no position on whether such use is more effective [22]. Trials of starting NRT before quit day, while still smoking, found higher quit rates (RR 1.25) [3].
Population
Published studies reviewed by FDA [22]; 4,395 participants in 9 preloading trials [3].
Sources
[22], [3]
Caveats
This is a regulator's review of the literature, not a pooled safety analysis.

Claims tested and not found

  1. That a nicotine patch slows or eases Parkinson's disease. Across 5 randomized trials, motor symptoms, daily function, cognition and quality of life did not differ from control [14].
  2. That NRT keeps weight off a year after quitting. At 12 months, weight gain differed by -0.37 kg (95% CI -0.86 to 0.11), not significant [11].
  3. That NRT helps teenagers stay quit. In 3 trials in young people, quit rates did not differ from control (RR 1.11, 95% CI 0.48 to 2.58) [9].
  4. That the nicotine patch causes depression or anxiety. In EAGLES, moderate and severe psychiatric adverse events on the patch matched placebo, 2.5% against 2.4% in people without psychiatric disorders [5].

Related

Nicotine pouchesSmokingBupropion

Sources

  1. Hartmann-Boyce J, Chepkin SC, Ye W, Bullen C, Lancaster T. Nicotine replacement therapy versus control for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd000146.pub5
  2. Lindson N, Theodoulou A, Ordóñez-Mena JM, et al. Pharmacological and electronic cigarette interventions for smoking cessation in adults: component network meta-analyses. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd015226.pub2
  3. Theodoulou A, Chepkin SC, Ye W, et al. Different doses, durations and modes of delivery of nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd013308.pub2
  4. Etter JF, Stapleton JA. Nicotine replacement therapy for long-term smoking cessation: a meta-analysis. Tobacco Control. 2006. https://doi.org/10.1136/tc.2005.015487
  5. Anthenelli RM, Benowitz NL, West R, et al. Neuropsychiatric safety and efficacy of varenicline, bupropion, and nicotine patch in smokers with and without psychiatric disorders (EAGLES): a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled clinical trial. The Lancet. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(16)30272-0
  6. Livingstone-Banks J, Fanshawe TR, Thomas KH, et al. Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd006103.pub8
  7. Lindson N, Livingstone-Banks J, Butler AR, et al. Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd010216.pub11
  8. Claire R, Chamberlain C, Davey MA, et al. Pharmacological interventions for promoting smoking cessation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd010078.pub3
  9. Fanshawe TR, Halliwell W, Lindson N, et al. Tobacco cessation interventions for young people. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd003289.pub6
  10. Myung SK, Park JY. Efficacy of Pharmacotherapy for Smoking Cessation in Adolescent Smokers: A Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nicotine & Tobacco Research. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/nty180
  11. Hartmann-Boyce J, Theodoulou A, Farley A, et al. Interventions for preventing weight gain after smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd006219.pub4
  12. McGrath J, McDonald JW, Macdonald JK. Transdermal nicotine for induction of remission in ulcerative colitis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2004. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd004722.pub2
  13. Newhouse P, Kellar K, Aisen P, et al. Nicotine treatment of mild cognitive impairment: a 6-month double-blind pilot clinical trial. Neurology. 2012. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.0b013e31823efcbb
  14. Liang CH, Huang TW, Chiu WT, et al. Nicotine Therapy for Parkinson's Disease: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Biomedicines. 2025. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines13081814
  15. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. NICODERM CQ (nicotine) transdermal patch, drug facts label. 2025. DailyMed. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=93b2d1b9-83c1-40b5-b6af-90c38c8d6cef
  16. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. NICORETTE (nicotine polacrilex) gum, drug facts label. 2024. DailyMed. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=673fd19f-69b3-4f73-b9b4-18b5f4cbf69c
  17. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. NICORETTE (nicotine polacrilex) lozenge, drug facts label. 2025. DailyMed. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=f350e050-2173-43e0-8738-848382ce0700
  18. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. NICOTROL NS (nicotine nasal spray), prescribing information. 2025. DailyMed. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=acb7d02d-249b-4645-ac1b-8ff9a56dd244
  19. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. NICOTROL Inhaler (nicotine inhalation system), prescribing information (Physicians Total Care repackager label). 2011. DailyMed. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=f32f9c92-cbb4-483b-9e70-0b6e4567824f
  20. Mills EJ, Wu P, Lockhart I, Wilson K, Ebbert JO. Adverse events associated with nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) for smoking cessation. A systematic review and meta-analysis of one hundred and twenty studies involving 177,390 individuals. Tobacco Induced Diseases. 2010. https://doi.org/10.1186/1617-9625-8-8
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